Border reivers

For other uses, see Border reivers (disambiguation).

"Reivers" redirects here. For the actor, see David Reivers. For other uses, see The Reivers (disambiguation).

Reivers at Gilnockie Tower in Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland, from a 19th-century print

Notorious raider Walter Scott of Harden's horn, noted in a poem called "The Reiver's Wedding" by Sir Walter Scott. It reads in part: "He took a bugle frae his side,/With names carved o'er and o'er,/Full many a chief of meikle pride,/That Border bugle bore."

Border reivers were raiders along the Anglo-Scottish border. They included both English and Scottish people, and they raided the entire border country without regard to their victims' nationality. They operated in a culture of legalised raiding and feuding. Their heyday was in the last hundred years of their existence, during the time of the House of Stuart in the Kingdom of Scotland and the House of Tudor in the Kingdom of England.

The historian G. M. Trevelyan summed up Border society by writing:

Like the Homeric Greeks, the Borderers were cruel and barbarous men, slaying each other like beasts of the forest, but high in pride and honour and rough faithfulness.

Amidst centuries of lawlessness, poverty and low-intensity conflict, compounded by significant invasions along the Anglo-Scottish frontier, familial groups gradually coalesced into organised units of common defence and offence based on kinship, giving rise to what would later be formalised as the 'Surnames.' The reivers emerged between 1350 and 1450, with their activities reaching their height in the 16th century during the Tudor period in England and the late Stewart period in Scotland. Reiving was a matter of subsistence for the borderer. They were infamous for raiding, blood feuds, eliciting protection money or taking hostages (blackmail), where justice was frequently negotiated through arbitration at Truce Days rather than enforced and mandated by state law. Often the dividing line between officially sanctioned raiding and independent raiding was not clear. Many crimes, such as theft and feuding, were treated with less severity due to the ancient customs and culture of the Borderlands, which had evolved over centuries to tolerate and codify such practices in the March law.

Although less well-known than Highlanders in Scotland, whom they met and defeated in battle on occasion, the border reivers played a significant role in shaping Anglo-Scottish relations. Their activities were a major factor in ongoing tensions between the two kingdoms, and their raids often had international repercussions. There is debate over how great their threat and the extent to which their raids were state-directed rather than purely opportunistic.

The culture of the border reivers, characterised by honour, close family bonds and self-defence, has been said to influence the culture of the Upland South in the United States. Many Borderers migrated as families to America, where their values are thought to have contributed significantly to the region's social structure and political ideologies, with echoes of their influence persisting even today.

Etymology

Reive, a noun meaning raid, comes from the Middle English (Scots) reifen. The verb reave meaning "plunder, rob", a closely related word, comes from the Middle English reven. There also exists a Northumbrian and Scots verb reifen. All three derive from Old English rēafian which means "to rob, plunder, pillage". Variants of these words were used in the Borders in the later Middle Ages.

The earliest use of the combined term "border reiver" appears to be by Sir Walter Scott in his anthology Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border. George Ridpath (1716?–1772), the author of posthumously published The Border-History of England and Scotland, deduced from the earliest times to the union of the two crowns (London, 1776), referred not to 'border reivers' but only to banditti.

Contemporary names

In the High Middle Ages, an outlaw was euphemistically known on the Borders as a "wolf" or a "bearer of the wolf's head". Later, outlaws were referred to as 'broken men.'

A 1443 source notes that "a garyson of refars" (reivers) being housed in Coldingham Priory were responsible for the theft of two thousand sheep. Those living in Redesdale and Tynedale were referred to as Highlanders by contemporary sources; by others pejoratively known at the time as the "Busy Gap Rogues" after being famed for spreading out from an isolated hole in Hadrian's Wall near Housesteads. The inhabitants of Teviotdale and the notorious Liddesdale were referred to as "Limmers". The Border reivers were also referred to as bandits (or bandis in Middle Scots) in some contemporary sources.

Background

Dryhope Tower near Selkirk in Scotland, built in the 1500s for protection against the reivers

Governance, culture and territoriality of the Anglo-Scottish frontier

The Anglo-Scottish borders were shaped by centuries of territorial disputes, cultural integration, and overlapping systems of governance, resulting in one of the most administratively complex regions of medieval Britain.

The traditional narrative places the Battle of Carham in 1018 as a pivotal moment when Scottish forces secured control over Lothian, marking a fundamental shift in the northern boundary of England. However, this interpretation is subject to debate. Some historians question whether the loss of Lothian to Scotland can be definitively dated to 1018, with a range of alternative timelines proposed or whether the battle had any real significance.

Lothian

Contemporary evidence suggests the gradual establishment of Scottish authority over Lothian and the Borders, marked by the consolidation of continuous royal control around the same time as the Norman Conquest, West Lothian and Midlothian likely dates between Máel Coluim III’s accession in 1058 and the death of his son Edgar in 1107. The continued ambiguity in the possession of Lothian is shown in the Peterborough Chronicle in 1091: "Then the king, Malcolm, heard that he would he sought out with an army, he went with his army out of Scotland into Lothian in England and bided there." Into the late 11th century, Lothian was still regarded as one of England's unshired regions, alongside Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmorland.

East Lothian saw consolidation under Máel Coluim III by 1093, with Edgar firmly establishing authority by 1107. Berwickshire (Merse) was under Máel Coluim III's rule, with Edgar solidifying control around 1100. Teviotdale (Roxburghshire) and Tweeddale fell under continuous Scottish control from 1113 during David I’s tenure. Annandale came under Robert de Brus, 1st Lord of Annandale between 1113 and 1124 as a vassal of David I, having been conferred upon him by Henry I of England. According to Alistair Moffat, by 1153, the Tweed Valley had been thoroughly feudalised. Not all land was giving to Norman incomers – there is at least one known Anglo-Scandinavian recorded as giving a land charter in Scotland.

Strathclyde

The Kingdom of Strathclyde appears to have collapsed under pressure from both the Gall-Goídil and the expanding Earldom of Bamburgh, and the Kingdom of Alba, by the turn of the twelfth century. Following the decline of Northumbrian authority inland, the Cumbric lands north of the Solway Firth were absorbed into what was emerging as the Kingdom of Scotland. In the wake of this fragmentation, opportunistic Norman adventurers established their own lordships in south-west of Scotland.

The twelfth century saw the Normanisation of the Scottish nobility, as Norman lords, brought in by David I of Scotland, introduced new complexities of Norman colonisation in the Borderlands. Many of these lords held land in England and brought in Anglo-Saxon tenants from their estates south of the border.

Northumbria

South of the Tweed, the precise date of the so-called Earldom of Bamburgh's fall remains uncertain, though it likely occurred c. 1100, amid converging pressures from southward Scottish expansion and northward Norman consolidation following William I's invasion of England. In the winter of 1069–70, the Normans systematically burned and looted the north of England in response to rebellion that included the Anglo-Saxon Earl of Northumberland, Gospatric, in an event known as the Harrying of the North. Neither Northumberland, County Durham, Cumberland nor Westmorland were surveyed in the Domesday Book in 1085.

There are strong indications that the area north of the Tyne remained outside effective Norman control until at least 1090s, with evidence suggesting the persistence of an independent Anglian polity or organised resistance until the early 12th century. Elsewhere it is said that the process of Norman conquest of Northumbria began in 1096 and colonisation was completed by 1135.

Cumbria

Following the Norman Conquest, the Anglo-Scottish border in the west remained ambiguous. William Rufus in 1090 expelled Dolfin of Carlisle, a possible descendant of the Anglo-Saxon Earls of Northumbria, from Cumberland and fortified Carlisle to secure the region. It is suggested by some that Cumbria was ceded by Tostig to Máel Coluim III in the 1060s, and that Dolfin may have been installed by Máel Coluim III. Cumberland was extensively colonised by Norman adventurers, who also forcefully resettled Danes and Anglo-Saxons from the south.

The Anarchy

However, during the period of civil war known as The Anarchy (1135–1153), David I of Scotland exploited the instability and advanced southward into northern England. In the Second Treaty of Durham (1139), King Stephen granted the Earldom of Northumbria: encompassing Carlisle, Cumberland, Westmorland, and Lancashire north of the Ribble to David's son, Prince Henry. These territories were later reclaimed, and David's successor, Malcolm IV, was forced to cede them. Since then, the Anglo-Scottish border has remained largely unchanged, with only minor adjustments. The Anglo-Scottish Border only began to formalise by 1237 in the Treaty of York.

Complex and dual identities

Land ownership and governance in the Anglo-Scottish border region during the 12th and 13th centuries were shaped by a highly mixed population and the ruling elite was predominantly composed of Norman, Flemish, and Breton incomers; many of which had a shared culture and land on both sides of the border.

These newcomers were granted lands and titles as knights and lords, establishing castles and vast demesnes, some straddling the ambiguous Anglo-Scottish frontier during the Wars of Scottish Independence; which later fuelled legal disputes and feuding over land and jurisdiction. The Borderlands, home to Early Scots, Northumbrians, Norse, Brythonic and Gaelic communities, ultimately fell under the control of a newly established foreign ruling class.

The integration of these groups under predominantly Norman, Flemish, and Breton lords across the border introduced a dual identity and a new layer of governance that often clashed with local traditions, further complicating loyalties and creating a fragmented political landscape. The unique March Law can be seen as an example of a distinct regional culture, different from both England and Scotland. The Armstrongs of Liddesdale, a powerful Scottish clan rooted in 13th and 14th-century English settlement, exhibited this dual identity, earning the notorious moniker "Evil Inglis" well into the 16th century due to their lawless ways. Similarly Grahams were reputed to identify as either Scottish or English whenever it suited them. Even into the 14th and 15th centuries, those living in Teviotdale who held English allegiance would occasionally appeal to the King of England to settle their disputes. According to late Tudor estimates, Scots comprised up to a third of those living within ten miles of the frontier in England.

Border Identity

The Wars of Scottish Independence played a key role in this transformation of the Borders, fostering and forcing a growing sense of national belonging that extended across social, cultural and linguistic groups. However, alongside this burgeoning national identity, a shared border identity also emerged, rooted in the unique cultural and legal practices of the region. This Borderer identity was by degree by how close they were to border and politically to their respective centres of power. It was noted in contemporaneous sources from 14th Century at that Borderers shared the same dialect across frontier and were indistinguishable on the battlefield. Government officials repeatedly expressed concerns that the Borderers often collaborated in ways that undermined law and order in the region and frequently married across the border despite prohibitions.

This shared identity coexisted with a lingering sense of Otherness, as the borders remained distinct from the centralised identities of both nations, shaped by their unique history and violent reputation, and the persistent influence of local loyalties. Borderers were not trusted enough to man the local garrisons. Despite having a distinct culture compared to those beyond the border frontier, there were still notable differences in the mid-16th century between the inhabitants of Tynedale and those of Redesdale, even though both liberties lay next to each other in the Cheviot highlands. This shared Border identity and feelings of Otherness persisted throughout the 16th century. Nevertheless, according to the historian Andy King, they were a Scots or English first and a Borderer second.

Disputed territory

The border defined in the aforementioned Treaty of York (1237) was only loosely specified, being understood to extend from the Solway Firth to the Tweed. By 1245, territorial disputes remained unresolved, as demonstrated in a case involving Hugh de Bolbec, a Northumbrian knight. A meeting near Carham on the Tweed attempted to establish "the true and ancient marches between the two kingdoms". Six knights from each side were appointed to walk the border line, but the Scottish and English representatives disagreed at every step. A second attempt in 1246 expanded the parties to twelve knights per side, with additional servants and men-at-arms processing through the Tweed Valley, but it too ended without agreement.

A third effort involved 48 knights in 1249, who swore an oath to trace the border. The English knights proposed a line running from the confluence of Reddenburn and the Tweed, south to Tres Karras and Hopperichlawe (now lost), and then to Whitelaw Hill in the Cheviot Hills. However, the Scottish knights opposed this perambulation with threats, and tensions escalated. Lacking further resources to continue, the English knights unilaterally declared the defined line to be "the true and ancient marches and divisions", despite the lack of mutual agreement.

Anglo-Scottish Borderland: (De)batable Land and threiplands

Throughout the period, various territories remained disputed due to unresolved claims, particularly lands referred to as threiplands (Scots for "disputed lands"). There were five such lesser threiplands alongside the larger and more notorious Debatable Land, as illustrated in the accompanying image. The Debatable Land was an expansive terra nullius, first appeared late in records in 1449; but was believed to go back to 'tymis begane,' or at least the days of Robert the Bruce and the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton (1329). It lay between the rivers Esk and Sark, was the subject of contention until 1552, when its status was finally settled. Originally referred to as the "Batable Land", a term derived from its use as fertile grazing ground, the territory was notable for an agreement allowing both English and Scottish borderers to graze cattle during the day, despite prohibitions on permanent settlement.

Berwick-upon-Tweed, a strategically important town on the Anglo-Scottish border, changed hands fourteen times during the medieval period, with significant transfers in 1174, 1296, and 1318, and in 1378 it was reportedly captured from English governance by independent Scottish raiders. Its turbulent history culminated in 1482 when it was seized by Richard, Duke of Gloucester, and thereafter remained under English administration.

The Anglo-Scottish border was not fully demarcated until the mid-19th century, when the Ordnance Survey mapped the area in detail. Even as late as this period, some lands, such as Kirkholm Common, were still considered by locals to be threipland. Such confusion over where the border lay is evidenced by the Ordnance Survey moving the Border east in 1859 map and then moved back west in the 1896 map.

Other disputed areas were resolved through less formal means. The Ba Green (or Ba' Green or Ball Green) near Wark and Coldstream, a Scottish tract of land that curiously lies on the English side of the River Tweed, is one such example. This threipland became the subject of an annual game of football, whose result determined temporary control of the land. Over time, Coldstream's growing population allowed it to field far more players than Wark, leading to the land being informally absorbed into Scotland.

Overlapping powers: judicial, religious, and secular authority

Map of the complex overlying secular and religious powers in the late medieval period Northumberland

The Anglo-Scottish Borders were marked by overlapping systems of administration and law, creating a patchwork of competing jurisdictions.

Secular liberties like Tynedale and Redesdale operated semi-independently, granting local lords significant autonomy to enforce laws and defend their territories. Robert de Umfraville, also known as "Robert-with-the-Beard," was granted the newly established Liberty of Redesdale in 1075, replacing the former Anglian lord, Mildraed. The Liberty of Tynedale, created in 1157, was governed by the monarch of Scotland as a fief of England until death of Alexander III, when it reverted to English rule. In 1414 the secular liberties were integrated into Common Law. The liberties were first incorporated into the shire of Northumberland during the reign of Henry VII and were later abolished entirely under Henry VIII. These secular liberties were frequently accused of, and shown to house troublemakers.

To note, Liddesdale, established in the late 12th century, was a rarity on the Scottish side, a regality functioning effectively as a secular liberty, with its own keeper who generally, ex officio, also held the position of Captain of Hermitage Castle.

Religious influence was prominent in the liberty of Hexhamshire, governed by the Archbishops of York, and in the County Palatine of Durham (which included the exclaves of Norhamshire and Islandshire on the frontier), ruled by the Prince Bishops, who held powers comparable to those of a king, including raising armies and collecting taxes. The religious liberties fiercely resisted the encroachment of secular lawmen into their jurisdictions. There were also sanctuary churches where individuals fleeing justice were granted 37 days of protection before the church took further action.

The Percies of Alnwick, Earls of Northumberland (created in 1377), based in Alnwick, and the Nevilles of Raby, the Earls of Westmorland (created in 1397), were another major force, holding substantial military and administrative influence over the English far north. Most major noble lords were absent from the frontier, including the Nevilles. In Scotland, the only comparable noble house of the Percies was that of the Black Douglases, but their fall in 1455 left a power vacuum.

Anglo-Scottish Marches

Until 1345, at least on the English side there was one march; until at least 1381 when it became two with the death of the last Umfraville with the creation of the English West and East March, and then a Middle March, carved out of the English East March, first appeared in texts dating to the 1470s. For much of the late 16th Century, English Middle and East March operated as one. Historical analysis by Anne Cardew highlights that the standard textbook cartography of the Scottish East, Middle, and West Marches lacks definitive fifteenth-century documentation, suggesting that these neat geographic boundaries - presented in the map - may be a later construct from the late sixteenth century or beyond.

The legal framework of the region was equally fragmented, with March law addressing cross-border disputes and raids, while state law and ecclesiastical law functioned in parallel. The Liberties, both religious and secular, were repeatedly accused of being havens for outlaws. Disputes often arose between Wardens of the Marches, Keepers of the liberties, and local sheriffs, reflecting the constant struggle to impose order in this turbulent region.

While both England and Scotland had overlapping jurisdictions, Scottish regalities generally lacked the level of autonomy seen in English liberties. This difference arose because England had a more centralised system of governance, whereas Scotland's rule was more fragmented, with local polities retaining greater independence. Despite these differences, both nations faced persistent challenges in governing the borderlands, where local power dynamics frequently overruled central authority.

The medieval Anglo-Scottish Borderlands

Hen Ogledd

The pervasive tradition of cattle raiding and endemic violence in the Border region appears to have roots that extend deep into its history. The earliest references to such behaviour appear in the Old Welsh (Hen Ogledd) poems attributed to bards such as Taliesin, Aneirin, and Llywarch Hen, which describe battles and raids in the early medieval period of what is now the Anglo-Scottish Borders. These poetic accounts hint at a long-standing culture of raiding and conflict in the northern British territories.

I roared, my breast full of tumult,
Lance on my shoulder, shield in my hand,
When Goddeu and Rheged were ranged for war,
I saw a man who was raiding cattle -
Famous dragon, unique trampler.

According to Jocelin of Furness, when St Kentigern arrived in the Carlisle area, he discovered that the people living up in the mountains were either practising pagan idolatry or had completely forgotten Christian law.

Modern genetic studies support the idea of continuity in the Borders region, showing that its population clusters separately from both broader Scottish and English genetic groups. There is evidence of continued settlement patterns in the Anglo-Scottish Borders, suggesting a continuity of territorial practices from the pre-Anglo-Saxon period. This distinction aligns with the historical role of the Borders as a cultural and geographical transitional zone and is consistent with the region's heritage, tracing back to the Brythonic-speaking kingdoms of Gododdin and Rheged.

March law

The formulation of March law, Leges Marchiarum, followed a meeting in 1248 between six English and six Scottish knights, first formally codified in 1249. Between 1249 and 1596, the laws of the Marches were reviewed and recodified on at least eight occasions.

This body of law seems to have developed over time and based on pre-existing customs. It addressed not only diplomatic relations between England and Scotland but also sought to regulate banditry, cross-border smuggling, and feuding. Its provisions included the return of fugitives, the recovery of debts, and the production of accused parties at designated trysting places along the border, such as Reddenburn near Kelso. These trysting places served as neutral meeting points for resolving disputes under the framework of March law, and pre-date the compilation of Leges Marchiarum.

The legal traditions referenced in these codes draw upon "the ancient laws and customs of the land," and some of the language, such as "handwarsil" and "manbote," suggests Anglo-Saxon origins. Other archaic aspects of the law included trial by combat and legalised feuds. Similarly, the phrase "double and sawfey" reflects a compensation formula also found in the Laws of Hywel Dda, with sawfey likely derived from the Welsh sarhaed, meaning 'a fine for injury', and suggests March law may go back to at least the Brythonic Kingdom of Strathclyde and Northumbria. Moffat traces the origins of Border law to the Borders’ Celtic past. A very similar set of laws to the Leges Marchiarum, addressing cross-border theft, including cattle-raiding, and murder and including the use of oaths and peace hostages, and compensation can be found in the Ordinance Concerning the Dunsæte (c. 11th century), which governed relations between a West Saxon community, Dunsæte, and a Welsh community, Wentsæte (likely the Kingdom of Gwent). Similar laws that regulated blood-feud, kinship revenge and compensation continued in Scotland until the Early modern period.

March law itself refers to the laws as originating "from a time which memory does not exist." However, the extent to which these laws derive from pre-Norman customs remains a topic of scholarly debate.

Wars of Scottish Independence

An earlier rendition of banditry may have been the bands of armed men who first appeared on the Borders in the early 14th century, then known as the Schavaldours (also spelled shavaldour, shavaldor, or shavaldor) during the unstable rule of Edward II of England. The term was first recorded in 1313, when Richard de Kellawe, then Bishop of Durham, requested to be excused from levying any money from the goods of the parson of Whickham, citing the damage caused by "Schavadours and plunderers." The Schavaldours, like the later (and anachronistically named) Border reivers, were often pressed into service during cross-border wars, such as those in 1350.

The problem of banditry grew worse following Edward II's loss at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 and appeared to further worsen after a severe famine in 1315–1317 and a failed campaign in 1322. The anarchy that followed created conditions where both organised and independent bands of Scottish armed men, along with opportunistic English bands, raided as far as Yorkshire, devastating the land not only through plunder but also widespread burning. While the term 'Schalvadours' disappears from records by the late 14th century, the violence and lawlessness that characterised the Border region continued for centuries.

Border warfare and the rise of Surnames

The Border reivers emerged between the end of the First Scottish War of Independence and the Wars of the Roses, as fortified defences in England began to appear during this period. It was during this turbulent period that Surnames and heidsmen likely emerged as kin-based leaders who organised defence, raids, and rudimentary social order amid endemic warfare and the collapse of traditional authority.

Edward II gave the men in the liberties of Tynedale and Redesdale immunity from land confiscation, a deliberate policy to secure their loyalty for Scottish campaigns. These liberties often provided sanctuary for raiders and fugitives, with a formal protected status emerging through Edward's policies.

The Wars of Independence severely impacted the Borders, leading to the displacement of many local gentry families due to violence and instability. After the Battle of Bannockburn (1314), the weakened English crown effectively abandoned northern England, issuing scorched earth retreat orders that were often ignored by English borderers who joined in the plunder. Many families who did leave never to return. However, following the English victory at Halidon Hill (1333), both older and newly emergent surnames began to re-establish themselves in the region. It has been argued that these newcomers, many of whom had acquired wealth and status through military service, encouraged established local families to engage in criminal activity.

In the aftermath of the Battle of Bannockburn, a new type of soldier emerged from the northern counties: the hobelar. These lightly armoured cavalrymen, mounted on hardy fell ponies and equipped with lances or bows, rose to prominence during the reign of Edward III. The town of Appleby-in-Westmorland was burnt during this time and there was still evidence of its devastation until Henry VIII time.

Following Edward Balliol's defeat at the Battle of Halidon Hill (1333), England expanded into southern Scotland and neglected governance of the traditional border region, creating a power vacuum that fostered lawlessness. Despite the Treaty of Berwick ending the Wars of Scottish Independence after David II's return from English captivity in 1357, border raiding continued as an established way of life.

The years of truces

From 1357 to the Wars of the Roses

Between the end of the Wars of Scottish Independence (1357) and the