Japanese cuisine
Japanese cuisine encompasses the regional and traditional foods of Japan, which have developed through centuries of political, economic, and social changes. The traditional cuisine of Japan (Japanese: washoku) is based on rice with miso soup and other dishes with an emphasis on seasonal ingredients. Side dishes often consist of fish, pickled vegetables, tamagoyaki, and vegetables cooked in broth. Common seafood is often grilled, but it is also sometimes served raw as sashimi or as sushi. Seafood and vegetables are also deep-fried in a light batter, as tempura. Apart from rice, a staple includes noodles, such as soba and udon. Japan also has many simmered dishes, such as fish products in broth called oden, or beef in sukiyaki and nikujaga.
Historically influenced by Chinese cuisine, Japanese cuisine has also opened up to influence from Western cuisines in the modern era. Dishes inspired by foreign food—in particular Chinese food—like ramen and gyōza, as well as foods like spaghetti, curry and hamburgers, have been adapted to Japanese tastes and ingredients. Traditionally, the Japanese shunned meat as a result of adherence to Buddhism, but with the modernization of Japan in the 1880s, meat-based dishes such as tonkatsu and yakiniku have become common. Since this time, Japanese cuisine, particularly sushi and ramen, has become popular globally.
In 2011, Japan overtook France to become the country with the most 3-starred Michelin restaurants; as of 2018[update], the capital of Tokyo has maintained the title of the city with the most 3-starred restaurants in the world.[1] In 2013, Japanese cuisine was added to the UNESCO Intangible Heritage List.[2]
History
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Rice is a staple in Japanese cuisine. Wheat and soybeans were introduced shortly after rice. All three act as staple foods in Japanese cuisine today. At the end of the Kofun period and beginning of the Asuka period, Buddhism became the official religion of the country. Therefore, eating meat and fish was prohibited. In 675 AD, Emperor Tenmu prohibited the eating of horses, dogs, monkeys, and chickens.[3] In the 8th and 9th centuries, many emperors continued to prohibit killing many types of animals. However, meat continued to be eaten in some areas. In Kagoshima, pig farming flourished, and in Oumi, there was a culture of eating beef. In addition, in the Suwa region, there was a ritual of deer sacrifice for Shinto rituals. The number of regulated meats increased significantly, leading to the banning of all mammals except whale, which were categorized as fish.[4] During the Asuka period, chopsticks were introduced to Japan. Initially, they were used only by the nobility.[5] The general population used their hands, as utensils were quite expensive.
Due to the lack of meat products, Japanese people minimized spice utilization. Spices were rare to find at the time. Spices, like pepper and garlic, were used only in a minimalist amount. Spices widely used in Japan were sansho and black pepper. They were often used in noodle, white rice, and fish dishes. They were also used as a nourishing medicine.[6][7] In the absence of meat, fish was served as the main protein, as Japan is an island nation. Fish has influenced many iconic Japanese dishes today. In the 9th century, grilled fish and sliced raw fish were widely popular.[8] Japanese people who could afford it would eat fish at every meal; others would have to make do without animal protein for many of their meals. In traditional Japanese cuisine, oil and fat are usually avoided during the cooking process in order to maintain a healthy lifestyle.[8]
Preserving fish became a sensation and sushi originated as a means of preserving fish by fermenting it in boiled rice. Fish that are salted and then placed in rice are preserved by lactic acid fermentation, which helps prevent the proliferation of the bacteria that bring about putrefaction.[9] During the 15th century, advancement and development helped shorten the fermentation of sushi to about one to two weeks. Sushi thus became popular both as a main meal and as a snack food, combining fish with rice. During the late Edo period (early 19th century), sushi without fermentation was introduced. Sushi was still being consumed with and without fermentation till the 19th century when the hand-rolled and nigiri-type sushi was invented.[10]
In 1854, Japan started to enter new trade deals with Western countries.[11] The concept of washoku (Japanese cuisine) was introduced in Japan following negotiations with the United States on a trade treaty.[12] When Emperor Meiji took power in 1868 as part of the Meiji Restoration, the government began to adopt Western customs, including the use of animal products in food.[13] The new ruler staged a New Year's feast designed to embrace the Western world and countries in 1872. The feast contained food that reflected European cuisine.[14][15] For the first time in a thousand years, people were allowed to consume meat in public, and the general population started to include meat in their regular diets.[16]
Culture
[edit]Terminology
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The word washoku (和食) is now the common word for traditional Japanese cooking. The term kappō (割烹; lit. "cutting and boiling (meats)") is synonymous with "cooking", but became a reference to mostly Japanese cooking, or restaurants, and was much used in the Meiji and Taishō eras.[17][18] It has come to connote a certain standard, perhaps even of the highest caliber, a restaurant with the most highly trained chefs.[19] However, kappō is generally seen as an eating establishment which is slightly more casual or informal compared to the kaiseki.[20]
The kaiseki (懐石, lit. "warming stone") is tied with the Japanese tea ceremony.[21] The kaiseki is considered a (simplified) form of honzen-ryōri (本膳料理, lit. "main tray cooking"),[22] which was formal banquet dining where several trays of food were served.[23] The homophone term kaiseki ryōri (会席料理, lit. "gathering + seating") originally referred to a gathering of composers of haiku or renga, and the simplified version of the honzen dishes served at the poem parties became kaiseki ryōri.[24] However, the meaning of kaiseki ryōri degenerated to become just another term for a sumptuous carousing banquet, or shuen (酒宴).[25]
Traditional table settings
[edit]The traditional Japanese table setting has varied considerably over the centuries, depending primarily on the type of table common during a given era. Before the 19th century, small individual box tables (hakozen, 箱膳) or flat floor trays were set before each diner. Larger low tables (chabudai, ちゃぶ台) that accommodated entire families were gaining popularity by the beginning of the 20th century, but these gave way to Western-style dining tables and chairs by the end of the 20th century.
The traditional Japanese table setting is to place a bowl of rice on the diner's left and to place a bowl of miso soup on the diner's right side at the table. Behind these, each okazu is served on its own individual plate. Based on the standard three-okazu formula, behind the rice and soup are three flat plates to hold the three okazu; one to far back left, one at far back right, and one in the center. Pickled vegetables are often served on the side but are not counted as part of the three okazu. Chopsticks are generally placed at the very front of the tray near the diner with pointed ends facing left and supported by a chopstick rest, or hashioki.[26]
Dining etiquette
[edit]Many restaurants and homes in Japan are equipped with Western-style chairs and tables. However, traditional Japanese low tables and cushions, usually found on tatami floors, are also very common. Tatami mats, which are made of straw, can be easily damaged and are hard to clean, thus shoes or any type of footwear are always taken off when stepping on tatami floors.[27]
When dining in a traditional tatami room, sitting upright on the floor is common. In a casual setting, men usually sit with their feet crossed and women sit with both legs to one side. Only men are supposed to sit cross-legged. The formal way of sitting for both sexes is a kneeling style known as seiza. To sit in a seiza position, one kneels on the floor with legs folded under the thighs and the buttocks resting on the heels.[27]
When dining out in a restaurant, the customers are guided to their seats by the host. The honored or eldest guest will usually be seated at the center of the table farthest from the entrance. In the home, the most important guest is also seated farthest away from the entrance. If there is a tokonoma, or alcove, in the room, the guest is seated in front of it. The host sits next to or closest to the entrance.[28]
In Japan, it is customary to say itadakimasu ("I [humbly] receive") before starting to eat a meal.[29] When saying itadakimasu, both hands are put together in front of the chest or on the lap. Itadakimasu is preceded by complimenting the appearance of food. Another customary and important etiquette is to say go-chisō-sama deshita ("It was a feast") to the host after the meal and the restaurant staff when leaving.[30]
Traditional cuisine
[edit]Japanese cuisine is based on combining the staple food, which is steamed white rice or gohan (御飯), with one or more okazu (おかず), "main" or "side" dishes. This may be accompanied by a clear or miso soup and tsukemono (pickles). The phrase ichijū-sansai (一汁三菜, "one soup, three sides") refers to the makeup of a typical meal served but has roots in classic kaiseki, honzen, and yūshoku cuisine. The term is also used to describe the first course served in standard kaiseki cuisine nowadays.[25]
The origin of Japanese "one soup, three sides" cuisine is a dietary style called Ichiju-Issai (一汁一菜, "one soup, one dish"),[31] tracing back to the Five Great Zen Temples of the 12-century Kamakura period (Kamakura Gozan), developed as a form of meal that emphasized frugality and simplicity.
Rice is served in its own small bowl (chawan), and each main course item is placed on its own small plate (sara) or bowl (hachi) for each individual portion. This is done even in Japanese homes. This contrasts with Western-style home dinners in which each individual takes helpings from large serving dishes of food placed in the middle of the dining table. Japanese style traditionally abhors different flavored dishes touching each other on a single plate, so different dishes are given their own individual plates as mentioned or are partitioned using, for example, leaves. Placing main dishes on top of rice, thereby "soiling" it, is also frowned upon by traditional etiquette.[32]
Although this tradition of not placing other foods on rice originated from classical Chinese dining formalities, especially after the adoption of Buddhist tea ceremonies; it became most popular and common during and after the Kamakura period, such as in the kaiseki (懐石). Although present-day Chinese cuisine has abandoned this practice, Japanese cuisine retains it. One exception is the popular donburi, in which toppings are directly served on rice.
The small rice bowl (茶碗, chawan), literally "tea bowl", doubles as a word for the large tea bowls in tea ceremonies. Thus in common speech, the drinking cup is referred to as yunomi-jawan or yunomi for the purpose of distinction. Among the nobility, each course of a full-course Japanese meal would be brought on serving napkins called zen (膳), which were originally platformed trays or small dining tables. In the modern age, faldstool trays or stackup-type legged trays may still be seen used in zashiki (座敷), i.e. tatami-mat rooms, for large banquets or at a ryokan type inn. Some restaurants might use the suffix -zen (膳) as a more sophisticated though dated synonym to the more familiar teishoku (定食), since the latter basically is a term for a combo meal served at a taishū-shokudō, akin to a diner.[33] Teishoku means a meal of fixed menu (for example, grilled fish with rice and soup), a dinner à prix fixe[34] served at shokudō (食堂, "dining hall") or ryōriten (料理店, "restaurant"), which is somewhat vague (shokudō can mean a diner-type restaurant or a corporate lunch hall); writer on Japanese popular culture Ishikawa Hiroyoshi[35] defines it as fare served at teishoku dining halls (定食食堂, teishoku-shokudō), and comparable diner-like establishments.
Seasonality
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Emphasis is placed on seasonality of food or shun (旬),[36][37] and dishes are designed to herald the arrival of the four seasons or calendar months.
Seasonality means taking advantage of the "fruit of the mountains" (山の幸, yama no sachi; alt. "bounty of the mountains") (for example, bamboo shoots in spring, chestnuts in the autumn) as well as the "fruit of the sea" (海の幸, umi no sachi; alt. "bounty of the sea") as they come into season. Thus the first catch of skipjack tunas (初鰹, hatsu-gatsuo) that arrives with the