Rama
| Rama | |
|---|---|
| |
| Member of Dashavatara | |
 Rama holding a bow and arrow, early 20th century depiction | |
| Other names | Ramachandra, Raghava, Maryada Purushottama |
| Devanagari | राम |
| Sanskrit transliteration | Rāma |
| Venerated in | Ramanandi Sampradaya Sri Vaishnavism Smartism |
| Affiliation | Seventh avatar of Vishnu, Brahman, Vaishnavism |
| Predecessor | Dasharatha |
| Successor | Lava (North Kosala) Kusha (South Kosala) |
| Abode | |
| Mantra | Jai Shri Ram Jai Siya Ram Hare Rama Ramanama repetition |
| Weapon | Sharanga (bow) and arrows |
| Army | Vanara Sena Ayodhyan Army |
| Symbol | Sharanga (bow) Arrows |
| Day | Thursday |
| Texts | Ramayana and its other versions |
| Gender | Male |
| Festivals | |
| Genealogy | |
| Avatar birth | Ayodhya, Kosala (present-day Uttar Pradesh, India) |
| Avatar end | Sarayu River, Ayodhya, Kosala (present-day Uttar Pradesh, India) |
| Parents |
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| Siblings |
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| Spouse | Sita[3] |
| Children | |
| Dynasty | Raghuvamsha-Suryavamsha |
| Dashavatara Sequence | |
|---|---|
| Predecessor | Parashurama |
| Successor | Balarama |
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Rama (/ˈrɑːmə/;[4] Sanskrit: राम, IAST: Rāma, Sanskrit: [ˈraːmɐ] ⓘ), also known as Ram[α], is a major deity in Hinduism, who is worshipped as one of the prominent avatars of Vishnu.[6][7][8] Rama is considered an ideal man (maryāda puruṣottama) and is the heroic protagonist of the Hindu epic Ramayana. In Rama-centric Hindu traditions, he is considered the Supreme Being. Often respectfully referred to as Sri Rama, his life is celebrated through several festivals: birth on Rama Navami, victory in battle on Vijayadashami, and return to Ayodhya on Diwali, which is marked by lights and fireworks. Legends of Rama also feature in the texts of Jainism and Buddhism.
According to the Ramayana of Valmiki, Rama was born to Dasaratha and his first wife Kausalya in Ayodhya, the capital of the Kingdom of Kosala. His half-siblings included Lakshmana, Bharata, and Shatrughna. He married Sita and, after a 14-year exile in the forest, assumed the Kosala throne. Rama's forest exile was filled with difficult circumstances and challenges of ethical questions and moral dilemmas, including the kidnapping of Sita by the demon-king Ravana.[9] Many Hindus see the life story of Rama as illustrating dharma and dharmic living.[9][10]
Rama is especially important to Vaishnavism, being the seventh avatar of Vishnu. He is the central figure in the ancient epic Ramayana, a text historically popular in the South Asian and Southeast Asian cultures.[11][12][13] His ancient legends have attracted bhashya (commentaries) and extensive secondary literature and inspired performance arts. Two such texts, for example, are the Adhyatma Ramayana – a spiritual and theological treatise considered foundational by Ramanandi monasteries,[14] and the Ramcharitmanas – a popular treatise that inspires thousands of Ramlila festival performances during autumn every year in India.[15][16][17]
The texts of Jainism and Buddhism also recount several tales of Rama, though he is sometimes called Pauma or Padma in these texts,[18] and their details vary significantly from the Hindu versions.[19] Jain Texts also mention Rama as the eighth balabhadra among the 63 salakapurusas.[20][21][22] In Sikhism, Rama is mentioned as twentieth of the[23] twenty-four divine avatars of Vishnu in the Chaubis Avtar in Dasam Granth.[24]
Etymology and nomenclature
Rama is also known as Ram, Raman, Ramar,[α] and Ramachandra (/ˌrɑːməˈtʃəndrə/;[25] IAST: Rāmacandra, Sanskrit: रामचन्द्र). Rāma is a Vedic Sanskrit word with two contextual meanings. In one context, as found in Atharva Veda, as stated by Monier Monier-Williams, it means "dark, dark-colored, black". In another context in other Vedic texts, the word means "pleasing, delightful, charming, beautiful, lovely".[26][27] The word is sometimes used as a suffix in different Indian languages and religions, such as Pali in Buddhist texts, where -rama adds the sense of "pleasing to the mind, lovely" to the composite word.[28] Many scholars also refer to "Rama" as "Ram", often due to its wide usage [7][8][29], while the honorific titles, Shri or Sri are also commonly used with Rama.[30]
Rama as a first name appears in the Vedic literature, associated with two patronymic names – Margaveya and Aupatasvini – representing different individuals. A third individual named Rama Jamadagnya is the purported author of hymn 10.110 of the Rigveda in the Hindu tradition.[26] The word Rama appears in ancient literature in reverential terms for three individuals:[26]
- Parashu-rama, as the sixth avatar of Vishnu. He is linked to the Rama Jamadagnya of the Rigveda fame.
- Rama-chandra, as the seventh avatar of Vishnu and of the ancient Ramayana fame.
- Bala-rama, also called Halayudha, as the elder brother of Krishna both of whom appear in the legends of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.
The name Rama appears repeatedly in Hindu texts, for many different scholars and kings in mythical stories.[26] The word also appears in ancient Upanishads and Aranyakas layer of Vedic literature, as well as music and other post-Vedic literature, but in qualifying context of something or someone who is "charming, beautiful, lovely" or "darkness, night".[26]
The Vishnu avatar named Rama is also known by other names. He is called Ramachandra (beautiful, lovely moon),[27] or Dasarathi (son of Dasaratha), or Raghava (descendant of Raghu, solar dynasty in Hindu cosmology).[26][31]
Additional names of Rama include Ramavijaya (Javanese), Phreah Ream (Khmer), Phra Ram (Lao and Thai), Megat Seri Rama (Malay), Raja Bantugan (Maranao), Ramar or Raman (Tamil), and Ramudu (Telugu).[32] In the Vishnu sahasranama, Rama is the 394th name of Vishnu. In some Advaita Vedanta inspired texts, Rama connotes the metaphysical concept of Supreme Brahman who is the eternally blissful spiritual Self (Atman, soul) in whom yogis delight nondualistically.[33]
The root of the word Rama is ram- which means "stop, stand still, rest, rejoice, be pleased".[27]
Significance of Rama
Rama is a prominent Hindu deity who is regarded as a Pūrṇāvatāra (lit. 'complete avatar') of the God Vishnu.[a] Some Hindus view Rama as Para Brahman (lit. 'The ultimate Brahman'). Rama holds immense significance in Hinduism. According to Hindu mythology, the Rama avatar is not supposed to exhibit any of Vishnu's divine potencies, and he leads his life as a human.[35] As Rama is said to have possessed sixteen ideal qualities, Hindus view Rama as Puruṣottama (lit. 'Ideal man') and Vigrahavān dharmaḥ (lit. 'Embodiment of Dharma').[36][37][b]
The name Rama appears in the main body of the Vishnu Sahasranama as the 394th name of the Hindu God Vishnu.[c] In the phalaśruti (lit. 'The benefit of hearing') of the Vishnu Sahasranama, there is a famous concluding verse, where Lord Siva says to his consort Parvati that I constantly delight in chanting the name of 'Rama, Rama, Rama'. The chanting of this single name of Sri Rama is equal to reciting the entire thousand names of Lord Vishnu. Within the Hindu theology, the Trayodaśakṣarī mantra ((lit. '13-syllabled mantra')) also known as Śrī Rāma Tāraka Mantra (lit. 'The Rama mantra for Salvation'), is a powerful invocation for spiritual liberation.[38]
Legends
This summary is a traditional legendary account, based on literary details from the Ramayana and other historic mythology-containing texts of Buddhism and Jainism. According to Sheldon Pollock, the figure of Rama incorporates more ancient "morphemes of Indian myths", such as the mythical legends of Bali and Namuci. The ancient sage Valmiki used these morphemes in his Ramayana similes as in sections 3.27, 3.59, 3.73, 5.19 and 29.28.[39]
Birth
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The ancient epic Ramayana states in the Balakanda that Rama and his brothers were born to Kaushalya and Dasharatha in Ayodhya, a city on the banks of Sarayu River.[40][41] The Jain versions of the Ramayana, such as the Paumacariya (literally deeds of Padma) by Vimalasuri, also mention the details of the early life of Rama. The Jain texts are dated variously, but generally pre-500 CE, most likely sometime within the first five centuries of the common era.[42] Moriz Winternitz states that the Valmiki Ramayana was already famous before it was recast in the Jain Paumacariya poem, dated to the second half of the 1st century CE, which pre-dates a similar retelling found in the Buddha-carita of Asvagosa, dated to the beginning of the 2nd century CE or prior.[43]
Dasharatha was the king of Kosala, and a part of the Kshatriya solar dynasty of Iksvakus. His mother's name Kaushalya literally implies that she was from Kosala. The kingdom of Kosala is also mentioned in Buddhist and Jain texts, as one of the sixteen Maha janapadas of ancient India, and as an important center of pilgrimage for Jains and Buddhists.[40][44] However, there is a scholarly dispute whether the modern Ayodhya is indeed the same as the Ayodhya and Kosala mentioned in the Ramayana and other ancient Indian texts.[45][β] The Dhanadeva inscription, found at Ayodhya, dated to the first century BCE, is often noted as evidence of the city existing through ancient times.[47]
Rama's birth, according to Ramayana, is an incarnation of God (Vishnu) as human. When demigods went to Brahma to seek liberation from Ravana's menace on the Earth (due to powers he had from Brahma's boon to him), Vishnu himself appeared and said he will incarnate as Rama (human) and kill Ravana (since Brahma's boon made him invincible from all, including God, except humans).[48]
Youth, family and marriage to Sita
Rama had three brothers, according to the Balakanda section of the Ramayana. These were Lakshmana, Bharata and Shatrughna.[3] The extant manuscripts of the text describes their education and training as young princes, but this is brief. Rama is portrayed as a polite, self-controlled, virtuous youth always ready to help others. His education included the Vedas, the Vedangas as well as the martial arts.[49]
The years when Rama grew up are described in much greater detail by later Hindu texts, such as the Ramavali by Tulsidas. The template is similar to those found for Krishna, but in the poems of Tulsidas, Rama is milder and reserved introvert, rather than the prank-playing extrovert personality of Krishna.[3]
In the kingdom of Mithilā, Janaka conducted a svayamvara ceremony at his capital with the condition that she would marry only a prince who would possess the strength to string the ajagava, one of the bows of the deity Shiva. Many princes attempted and failed to string the bow. During this time, Vishvamitra had brought Rama and his brother Lakshmana to the forest for the protection of a yajna (ritual sacrifice). Hearing about the svayamvara, Vishvamitra asked Rama to participate in the ceremony with the consent of Janaka, who agreed to offer Sita's hand in marriage to the prince if he could fulfil the requisite task. When the bow was brought before him, Rama seized the centre of the weapon, fastened the string taut, and broke it in two in the process. Witnessing his prowess, Janaka agreed to marry his daughter to Rama and invited Dasharatha to his capital.[50] During the homeward journey to Ayodhya, another avatar of Vishnu, Parashurama, challenged Rama to combat, on the condition that he was able to string the bow of Vishnu, Sharanga. When Rama obliged him with success, Parashurama acknowledged the former to be a form of Vishnu and departed to perform penance at the mountain Mahendra. The wedding entourage then reached Ayodhya, entering the city amid great fanfare.[51][52][53] Thereafter, Rama lived happily with Sita for twelve (12) years.[54]
Meanwhile, Rama and his brothers were away, Kaikeyi, the mother of Bharata and the third wife of King Dasharatha, reminds the king that he had promised long ago to comply with one thing she asks, anything. Dasharatha remembers and agrees to do so. She demands that Rama be exiled for fourteen years to Dandaka forest.[49] Dasharatha grieves at her request. Her son Bharata, and other family members become upset at her demand. Rama states that his father should keep his word, adds that he does not crave for earthly or heavenly material pleasures, and seeks neither power nor anything else. He informs of his decision to his wife and tells everyone that time passes quickly. Sita leaves with him to live in the forest, and Lakshmana joins them in their exile as the caring close brother.[49][55]
Exile and war
Rama heads outside the Kosala kingdom, crosses Yamuna river and initially stays at Chitrakuta, on the banks of river Mandakini, in the hermitage of sage Vasishtha.[56] During the exile, Rama meets one of his devotee, Shabari who happened to love him so much that when Rama asked something to eat she offered her ber, a fruit. But every time she gave it to him she first tasted it to ensure that it was sweet and tasty as a testament to her devotion. Rama also understood her devotion and ate all the half-eaten bers given by her. Such was the reciprocation of love and compassion he had for his people. This place is believed in the Hindu tradition to be the same as Chitrakoot on the border of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.[57] The region has numerous Rama temples and is an important Vaishnava pilgrimage site.[56] The texts describe nearby hermitages of Vedic rishis (sages) such as Atri, and that Rama roamed through forests, lived a humble simple life, provided protection and relief to ascetics in the forest being harassed and persecuted by demons, as they stayed at different ashrams.[56][54]
After ten years of wandering and struggles, Rama arrives at Panchavati, on the banks of river Godavari. This region had numerous demons (rakshashas). One day, a demoness called Shurpanakha saw Rama, became enamored of him, and tried to seduce him.[49] Rama refused her. Shurpanakha retaliated by threatening Sita. Lakshmana, the younger brother protective of his family, in turn retaliated by cutting off the nose and ears of Shurpanakha. The cycle of violence escalated, ultimately reaching demon king Ravana, who was the brother of Shurpanakha. Ravana comes to Panchavati to take revenge on behalf of his family, sees Sita, gets attracted, ask Maricha, his uncle, to disguised himself as a magnificent deer to lure Sita,[58] and kidnaps her to his kingdom of Lanka (believed to be modern Sri Lanka).[49][54]
Rama and Lakshmana discover the kidnapping, worry about Sita's safety, despair at the loss and their lack of resources to take on Ravana. Their struggles now reach new heights. They travel south, meet Sugriva, marshall an army of monkeys, and attract dedicated commanders such as Hanuman who was a minister of Sugriva.[59][60] According to regional Shakta traditions, during his exile and search for Sita, Rama visited the forests of South India where he met Vaishno Devi. She was performing rigorous penance to attain Vishnu as her husband. Rama politely declined her proposal, citing his vow of monogamy to Sita, but promised to visit her again after conquering Lanka. According to the legend, Rama returned on his journey back to Ayodhya but deliberately disguised himself as an old ascetic. When Vaishnavi's vision was clouded by his illusion and she failed to recognize him, Rama consoled her and explained that her life had a higher cosmic purpose. He instructed her to travel north to the three-peaked Trikuta Mountain in Jammu to meditate in a holy cave and spread righteousness, sending Hanuman to accompany and protect her. Rama also granted her a boon that at the end of the Kali Yuga, he would return in his final incarnation as Kalki to marry her.[61][62] Meanwhile, Ravana harasses Sita to be his wife, queen or goddess.[63] Sita refuses him. Ravana gets enraged and ultimately reaches Lanka, fights in a war that has many ups and downs, but ultimately Rama prevails, kills Ravana and forces of evil, and rescues his wife Sita. They return to Ayodhya.[49][64]
Post-war life
The return of Rama to Ayodhya was celebrated with his coronation. It is called Rama pattabhisheka, and his rule itself as Rama rajya described to be a just and fair rule.[65][66] It is believed by many that when Rama returned people celebrated their happiness with diyas (lamps), and the festival of Diwali is connected with Rama's return.[67]
Upon Rama's accession as king, rumours emerge that Sita may have gone willingly when she was with Ravana; Sita protests that her capture was forced. Rama responds to public gossip by renouncing his wife and asking her to prove her chastity in front of Agni (fire). She does and passes the test. Rama and Sita live happily together in Ayodhya,[54] have twin sons named Kusha and Lava, in the Ramayana and other major texts. However, in some revisions, the story is different and tragic, with Sita dying of sorrow for her husband not trusting her, making Sita a moral heroine and leaving the reader with moral questions about Rama.[68][69] In these revisions, the death of Sita leads Rama to drown himself. Through death, he joins her in afterlife.[70] Depiction of Rama dying by drowning himself and then emerging in the sky as a six-armed incarnate of Vishnu is found in the Burmese version of Rama's life story called Thiri Rama.[71]
Variations
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Rama's legends vary significantly by the region and across manuscripts. While there is a common foundation, plot, grammar and an essential core of values associated with a battle between good and evil, there is neither a correct version nor a single verifiable ancient one. According to Paula Richman, there are hundreds of versions of "the story of Rama in India, Southeast Asia and beyond".[72][73] The versions vary by region reflecting local preoccupations and histories, and these cannot be called "divergences or different tellings" from the "real" version, rather all the versions of Rama story are real and true in their own meanings to the local cultural tradition, according to scholars such as Richman and Ramanujan.[72]
The stories vary in details, particularly where the moral question is clear, but the appropriate ethical response is unclear or disputed.[74][75] For example, when demoness Shurpanakha disguises as a woman to seduce Rama, then stalks and harasses Rama's wife Sita after Rama refuses her, Lakshmana is faced with the question of appropriate ethical response. In the Indian tradition, states Richman, the social value is that "a warrior must never harm a woman".[74] The details of the response by Rama and Lakshmana, and justifications for it, has numerous versions. Similarly, there are numerous and very different versions to how Rama deals with rumours against Sita when they return victorious to Ayodhya, given that the rumours can neither be objectively investigated nor summarily ignored.[76] Similarly the versions vary on many other specific situations and closure such as how Rama, Sita and Lakshmana die.[74][77]
The variation and inconsistencies are not limited to the texts found in the Hinduism traditions. The Rama story in the Jain tradition also show variation by author and region, in details, in implied ethical prescriptions and even in names – the older versions using the name Padma instead of Rama, while the later Jain texts just use Rama.[78]
Dating and historicity
In some Hindu texts, Rama is stated to have lived in the Treta Yuga[79] that their authors estimate existed before about 5000 BCE. Archaeologist H. D. Sankalia, who specialised in Proto- and Ancient Indian history, find such estimate to be "pure speculation".[80] Sankalia states that incidents of the Ramayana story could have taken place between 1,500-700 BCE.[80][81]
The composition of Rama's epic story, the Ramayana, in its current form is usually dated between 8th and 4th century BCE.[53][82][83] According to John Brockington, a professor of Sanskrit at Oxford known for his publications on the Ramayana, the original text was likely composed and transmitted orally in more ancient times, and modern scholars have suggested various centuries in the 1st millennium BCE. In Brockington's view, "based on the language, style and content of the work, a date of roughly the fifth century BCE is the most reasonable estimate".[84]
Historians often highlight that Rama's narrative reflects not only religious beliefs but also societal ideals and moral principles. They explore the possibility of Rama being a composite figure, embodying virtues and qualities valued in ancient Indian society.[85] This perspective underscores the Ramayana's role as both a religious scripture and a cultural artifact, illustrating how legends like Rama's have shaped India's collective consciousness and ethical frameworks over centuries. Ariel Glucklich about this, quoted: "[...] Rama serve not only as historical narratives but also as moral and spiritual teachings, shaping cultural identity and religious beliefs in profound ways."[86][87][88]
Iconography and characteristics
Rama iconography shares elements of avatars of Vishnu, but has several distinctive elements. He has two hands, holds a bana (arrow) in his right hand, while he holds the dhanus (bow) in his left.[89][90] He is often accompanied with his brother Lakshmana on his left side while his consort Sita always on his right, both of golden-yellow complexion.[89] His monkey companion Hanuman stands nearby with folded arms. He is shown black, blue or dark color, typically wearing reddish color clothes.[89] The group can be accompanied with Rama's brothers Bharata and Shatrughna too.
Rama sculptures depict several postures, such as standing in tribhanga pose (thrice bent "S" shape)[89]. Rama is also depicted in Abhanga posture carrying a bow and arrow, such as in classical dance literature [91], while many south indian temples depict Rama in dvibangha posture, such as Sri Rama at Chennakesava temple in Markapuram, Prakasam district of Andhra Pradesh, where Sri Rama stands in dvibangha and holds arrow in the right hand and bow in the left.[92] While some scholars claim that tribhanga may be a preferred posture for Rama sculptures, other scholars contradict this, as evidenced by many Rama idols in dvibhanga posture consecrated as temple deities in many respected temples, including that Rama sculpture at the Bhimesvara temple at Drakshara, Chennakesava Temple, Markapuram, where Rama stands in dvibhaṅga, holding an arrow in the right hand and bow in the left, and Chennakesava group of temples, Pushpagiri, where a Ramayana panel depicts Rama standing in dvibhaṅga, holding bow and arrow