Rastafari

Rastafari often claim the flag of the Ethiopian Royal Standard as was used during Haile Selassie's reign. It combines the conquering lion of Judah, symbol of the Ethiopian monarchy, with red, gold, and green.

Rastafari is an Abrahamic religion that developed in Jamaica during the 1930s. It is classified as both a new religious movement and a social movement by scholars of religion. There is no central authority in control of the movement and much diversity exists among practitioners, who are known as Rastafari, Rastafarians, or Rastas.

Rastafari beliefs are based on an interpretation of the Christian Bible. Central to the religion is a monotheistic belief in a single God, referred to as Jah, who partially resides within each individual. Rastas accord key importance to Haile Selassie, Emperor of Ethiopia between 1930 and 1974. Many see him as the Second Coming of Jesus and Jah incarnate; others deem him a human prophet. Rastafari is Afrocentric and focuses attention on the African diaspora, which it believes is oppressed within "Babylon," meaning Western capitalist society. Many Rastas call for this diaspora's resettlement in Africa, a continent they consider "Zion", the Promised Land. Rastas refer to their practices as "livity", which includes adhering to Ital dietary requirements, wearing their hair in dreadlocks, and following patriarchal gender roles. Communal meetings are known as "groundations", and are typified by music, chanting, discussions, and the smoking of cannabis, the latter regarded as a sacrament with beneficial properties.

Rastafari originated among impoverished and socially disenfranchised Afro-Jamaican communities in 1930s Jamaica. A reaction against Jamaica's then-dominant British colonial culture, it was influenced by both Ethiopianism and the Back-to-Africa movement promoted by black nationalist figures such as Marcus Garvey. The religion developed after several Protestant Christian clergymen, most notably Leonard Howell, proclaimed that Haile Selassie's 1930 crowning as Emperor of Ethiopia fulfilled a biblical prophecy. By the 1950s, Rastafari's countercultural stance had brought the movement into conflict with wider Jamaican society, including violent clashes with law enforcement. Early Rastafari often espoused black supremacy as a form of opposition to white supremacy, but this has gradually become less common since the 1970s. In the 1960s and 1970s, it gained increased respectability within Jamaica and greater visibility abroad through the popularity of Rastafari-inspired reggae musicians, most notably Bob Marley. Enthusiasm for Rastafari declined in the 1980s following the deaths of Selassie and Marley, but the movement has survived and maintains a presence in many parts of the world.

The Rastafari movement is decentralised and organised on a largely sectarian basis. There are several denominations, or "Mansions of Rastafari", the most prominent of which are the Nyabinghi, Bobo Ashanti, and the Twelve Tribes of Israel, each offering a different interpretation of Rastafari belief. There is an estimated 700,000 to 1 million Rastafari worldwide. The largest population is in Jamaica, although small communities can be found in most of the world's major population centres. Most Rastafari are of African descent, and some groups accept only black members, but non-black groups have also emerged.

Definition

Two Rastafarians in Zeerust, South Africa; they are wearing and selling items that display their commitment to the religion

Rastafari is a religion, meeting many of the proposed definitions for what constitutes a religion, and is legally recognised as such in various countries. Some scholars of religion have labelled it an Abrahamic religion, while other scholars have also classified it as a new religious movement, a sect, a cult, and a revitalisation movement. Having arisen in Jamaica, it has been described as an Afro-Jamaican religion, and more broadly an Afro-Caribbean religion.

Although Rastafari emphasises Africa as a source of identity, it is a product of creolisation processes in the Americas, described by the Hispanic studies scholars Margarite Fernández Olmos and Lizabeth Paravisini-Gebert as "a Creole religion, rooted in African, European, and Indian practices and beliefs". The scholar Ennis B. Edmonds also suggested that Rastafari was "emerging" as a world religion, not because of the number of its adherents, but because of its global spread. Many Rastas nevertheless reject descriptions of Rastafari as a religion, instead referring to it as a "way of life", a "philosophy", or a "spirituality".

Given its political support of African nationalism and pan-Africanism, some academics have characterised Rastafari as a political movement, a "politico-religious" movement, or a protest movement. It has alternatively been labelled a social movement, or more specifically as a new social movement, and a cultural movement. Many Rastas or Rastafarians—as practitioners are known—nevertheless dislike the labelling of Rastafari as a "movement". In 1989, a British Industrial Tribunal concluded that, for the purposes of the Race Relations Act 1976, Rastafarians could be considered an ethnic group because they have a long, shared heritage which distinguished them from other groups, their own cultural traditions, a common language, and a common religion.

The Liberty Bell Temple, a Rasta place of worship in Los Angeles

Rastafari has continuously changed and developed. It is not a unified movement, and there has never been a single leader followed by all Rastafari. Different Rasta groups exist, each promoting different variations on its basic teachings. It is thus difficult to make broad generalisations about the movement without obscuring the complexities within it. The scholar of religion Darren J. N. Middleton suggested that it was appropriate to speak of "a plethora of Rasta spiritualities" rather than a single phenomenon.

The term "Rastafari" derives from "Ras Tafari Makonnen", the pre-regnal title of Haile Selassie, the former Ethiopian emperor who occupies a central role in Rasta belief. The term "Ras" is a title of nobility equivalent to a duke or prince in the Ethiopian Semitic languages; "Tafari Makonnen" was Selassie's personal name. It is unknown why the early Rastas adopted this form of Haile Selassie's name as the basis of the term for their religion. As well as being the religion's name, "Rastafari" is also used for the religion's practitioners themselves.

Many commentators—including some academic sources and some practitioners—refer to the movement as "Rastafarianism". However, the term is disparaged by many Rastafari, who believe that the use of -ism implies religious doctrine and institutional organisation, things they wish to avoid.

Beliefs

Rastafari graffiti, depicting Haile Selassie, on a building in Uruguay

Rastafari outlines a fairly cohesive worldview, with Rastas often calling these beliefs "Rastalogy". Attempts to summarise Rastafari teaching have never been accorded the status of a catechism or creed. Instead, Rasta beliefs are open to interpretation, with Rastas emphasising the idea that personal experience and intuitive understanding should be used to determine the truth or validity of a belief or practice. No Rasta, therefore, has the authority to declare which beliefs and practices are orthodox and which are heterodox. The conviction that Rastafari has no dogma "is so strong that it has itself become something of a dogma", according Peter B. Clarke, a scholar of the sociology of religion.

The scholar Michael Barnett called Rastafari "an Afrocentralized blend of Christianity and Judaism", with the religion being deeply influenced by Christian and Jewish thought. Some Rastas consider themselves Christian. Like Christianity, Rastafari treats the Bible as a holy book which is central to its belief system. Rastas often adopt a literalist interpretation of its contents, utilising it as a source book from which to form their own beliefs and practices. Contrary to scholarly understandings of the Bible's history, Rastas commonly believe the Bible was originally written on stone in the Ethiopian language of Amharic, maintaining that it is an authentic account of African history that explains the Africans' place as God's favoured people. They believe the Bible to be key to understanding both the past and the present and for predicting the future; the Bible's final book, the Book of Revelation, is often seen as being particularly important for understanding the world's present situation.

Rastas believe that the Bible's true meaning has been warped through mistranslation and by deliberate manipulation by those seeking to deny black Africans their history. They also regard the Bible as cryptographic, meaning that it has many hidden meanings. They believe that its true teachings can be revealed through intuition and meditation on the "book within" which allows them to commune with God. Because of what they regard as the corruption of the Bible, Rastas also turn to other sources that they believe shed light on African history, including Leonard Howell's 1935 work The Promised Key, Robert Athlyi Rogers' 1924 book Holy Piby, and Fitz Balintine Pettersburg's 1920s work, the Royal Parchment Scroll of Black Supremacy. Many Rastas also treat the Kebra Nagast, a 14th-century Ethiopian text, as a source through which to interpret the Bible.

Jah and Jesus Christ

Rastas are monotheists, worshipping a singular God whom they call Jah. The term "Jah" is a shortened version of "Jehovah", the name of God in English translations of the Old Testament. Rastas believe in the immanence of Jah, meaning that he is inherent within each individual. This is reflected in the common Rasta aphorism that "God is man and man is God", and Rastas speak of "knowing" Jah, rather than "believing" in him. This idea of divinity existing within each person differs from the spirit possession found in other African diaspora religions such as Kumina.

Jesus is an important figure in Rastafari. However, practitioners reject the traditional Christian view of Jesus and the common depiction of him as a white European. They believe Jesus was a black African, with white Jesus being a false god. Some Rastas believe that the God of white Christians is actually the Devil, and a recurring claim among Rastas is that the Pope is Satan or the Antichrist. Rastas often regard Christianity as the creation of the white man, a religion that has helped oppress the African diaspora, trapping them in a form of "mental enslavement". Many Rastas believe that the oppressors (white Europeans) and the oppressed (black Africans) cannot share the same God.

Haile Selassie

Haile Selassie, Emperor of Ethiopia between 1930 and 1974. He is of central importance to Rastas, many of whom regard him as the Second Coming of Jesus and thus God incarnate in human form.

Rastafari is intrinsically linked with Haile Selassie, the Emperor of Ethiopia from 1930 to 1974. He is the central figure in Rastafari ideology, and all Rastas hold him in esteem, although precise interpretations of his identity differ.

Many Rastas believe that Haile Selassie was the Second Coming of Jesus, legitimising this by reference to their interpretation of the nineteenth chapter of the Book of Revelation. In viewing Haile Selassie as Jesus, these Rastas regard him as the messiah prophesied in the Old Testament, the manifestation of God in human form, and "the living God". Some perceive him as part of the Trinity, alongside God as Creator and the Holy Spirit, the latter called "the Breath within the temple". Rastas viewing Haile Selassie as Jesus argue that both descended from the royal line of the Biblical king David, further highlighting that Haile Selassie's Makonnen dynasty claimed descent from the Biblical figures Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.

Other Rastas do not believe Selassie was Jesus, but think that he embodied Jesus' teachings and essence. For them, Selassie is a messenger of God rather than a manifestation of God himself. Members of the Twelve Tribes of Israel denomination, for instance, reject the idea that Selassie was the Second Coming, arguing that this event has yet to occur. Rastas holding to this view sometimes regard the deification of Haile Selassie as ignorant, in some cases thinking it as dangerous to worship a human being as God. Certain Rastas went from believing that Haile Selassie was Jesus and thus God incarnate to seeing him as a distinct entity.

While he was emperor, many Jamaican Rastas thought that Haile Selassie would never die. Haile Selassie's 1974 overthrow by the military junta known as the Derg and his subsequent death in 1975 resulted in a crisis of faith for many practitioners. Some left the movement altogether. Others remained, concluding that Selassie did not really die and that claims to the contrary were Western misinformation. To bolster their argument, they pointed to the absence of a corpse; in reality, Selassie's body had been buried beneath his palace, remaining undiscovered until 1992. Another perspective within Rastafari acknowledged that Selassie's body had perished, but maintained that his inner spiritual essence survived. A third response within the Rastafari community was that Selassie's death was inconsequential as he had only been a "personification" of Jah rather than Jah himself.

During his life, Selassie described himself as a devout Christian. In a 1967 interview, Selassie was asked about the Rasta belief that he was the Second Coming of Jesus, to which he responded: "I have heard of this idea. I also met certain Rastafarians. I told them clearly that I am a man, that I am mortal, and that I will be replaced by the oncoming generation, and that they should never make a mistake in assuming or pretending that a human being is emanated from a deity." His grandson Ermias Sahle Selassie has said that there is "no doubt that Haile Selassie did not encourage the Rastafari movement". Critics of Rastafari have used this as evidence that Rasta theological beliefs are incorrect, although some Rastas take Selassie's denials as evidence that he was indeed the incarnation of God, based on their reading of the Gospel of Luke.

Afrocentrism and race

Main article: Rasta views on race

The eastern African nation of Ethiopia is given great prominence in Rasta doctrine.

According to Clarke, Rastafari is "concerned above all else with black consciousness, with rediscovering the identity, personal and racial, of black people". The movement began among Afro-Jamaicans who wanted to reject the British colonial culture that dominated Jamaica and replace it with a new identity based on a reclamation of their African heritage. It decenters Europe and whiteness and emphasises Africa and blackness, seeking to purge from its followers any belief in the inferiority of black people and the superiority of white people. Rastafari is Afrocentric, equating blackness with the African continent, and endorsing Pan-Africanism.

Rastas identify themselves with the ancient Israelites—God's chosen people in the Old Testament—and believe that they, or black Africans more broadly, are either the descendants or reincarnations of this ancient people. This is similar to beliefs in Judaism, although Rastas often deny that contemporary Jews are descended from the ancient Israelites. For most Rastas, black Africans are God's chosen people, for they made a covenant with him and thus bear special responsibilities. Rastafari maintains that this, the true identity of black Africans, has been lost and must be reclaimed.

There is no uniform Rasta view on race. Black supremacy was common early in the movement, including the belief in a distinct black African race that was superior to other racial groups. Consequently, the religion has been accused of racism. While some Rastas retain such beliefs, black supremacy has waned in the movement since at least the 1970s, and non-black Rastas are now widely accepted. Some Rastas cite a 1963 speech by Haile Selassie in support of racial acceptance. Although certain sects maintain that white Europeans can never be legitimate Rastas, others believe an "African" identity is not inherently linked to black skin but to whether an individual displays an African "attitude" or "spirit".

Exile in Babylon

Rastafari teaches that the black African diaspora are exiles living in "Babylon", a term it applies to Western society. For Rastas, European colonialism and global capitalism are manifestations of Babylon, with police and soldiers as its agents. The term "Babylon" is adopted by Rastas because of its Biblical associations. In the Old Testament, Babylon is the Mesopotamian city where the Israelites were held captive, exiled from their homeland, in the 6th century BCE; Rastas compare the Israelites' exile to that of the African diaspora outside Africa. Rastas perceive this exile as an experience of great suffering, with the term "suffering" having significance in Rasta discourse.

Rastas view Babylon as being responsible for both the Atlantic slave trade, which removed enslaved Africans from their continent, and ongoing poverty in the African diaspora. They believe Biblical scripture explains the Atlantic slave trade, and that the enslavement, exile, and exploitation of black Africans was punishment for failing to live up to their status as Jah's chosen people. Many Rastas, adopting a Pan-Africanist ethos, have criticised Africa's division into nation-states, regarding this as a Babylonian development, as well as capitalist resource extraction from the continent. Rastas seek to delegitimise and destroy Babylon, a sentiment conveyed in the Rasta aphorism "Chant down Babylon". Rastas often expect white-dominated society to dismiss their beliefs as false, and when this happens they see it as confirmation of the correctness of their faith.

Return to Zion

Rastas view Zion as an ideal to which they aspire. As with "Babylon", this term comes from the Bible, where it refers to an idealised Jerusalem. Rastas use "Zion" either for Ethiopia or for Africa more broadly. Many Rastas use the term "Ethiopia" as a synonym for Africa, following its usage in English translations of the Bible. Rastas in Ghana, for instance, describe themselves as already living within "Ethiopia". Other Rastas apply the term "Zion" to Jamaica or use it to describe a state of mind.

A map of Ethiopia, sometimes called "Zion" by Rastas

During Rastafari's first three decades, it placed strong emphasis on the need for the African diaspora to return to Africa. Many perceived Africa as a Promised Land where they would be free from the domination and degradation experienced in Babylon. To this end, various Rastas lobbied the Jamaican government and United Nations to oversee this resettlement process. Other Rastas organised their own transportation to Africa. Critics of the movement argued that the migration of the entire African diaspora to Africa is implausible and would not be welcomed by any African country.

By the movement's fourth decade, the desire for physical repatriation to Africa had declined among Rastas, a change influenced by observation of the 1983–1985 famine in Ethiopia. Rather, many Rastas saw the idea of returning to Africa in a metaphorical sense, entailing the restoration of their pride and self-confidence as people of black African descent. The term "liberation before repatriation" began to be used within the movement, with some Rastas seeking to transform Western society rather than leaving it. Many Rastas nevertheless continue to emphasise the need for the African diaspora's resettlement in Africa.

Salvation and paradise

Rastafari is a millenarian movement, maintaining that the present age will come to an apocalyptic end. Many practitioners believe that on this Day of Judgment, Babylon will be overthrown, with Rastas being the chosen few who survive the upheaval. With Babylon destroyed, Rastas believe that humanity will enter a "new age", a millennium of peace, justice, and happiness in which the righteous shall live in Africa. In the 1980s, many Rastas believed that the Day of Judgment would happen around the year 2000. A view then common in the Rasta community was that white people would wipe themselves out through nuclear war, with black Africans then ruling the world, something that they argued was prophesied in the Book of Daniel.

Death and reincarnation

Main article: Rasta views of the afterlife

Rasta views on death vary. Traditionally, many Rastas believed in the possibility of eternal life. In the 1980s, scholar of religion Leonard E. Barrett observed Jamaican Rastas who thought that practitioners who died had not been faithful to Jah. He suggested that this attitude stemmed from the large numbers of young people in the movement, who had thus seen very few Rastas die. Another common Rasta view is that those who are righteous may undergo reincarnation.

Rastas traditionally avoid death and funerals, meaning that many are given Christian funerals by their relatives. This attitude to death is less common among more recent or moderate strands of Rastafari, with many considering death a natural part of life. Unlike other African diaspora religions, Rastas typically avoid ancestor veneration.

Morality, ethics, and gender roles

A Rasta in Barbados, wearing a rastacap decorated in the Rastafari colours: green, gold, red and black

Most Rastas promote "two great commandments": love of God and love of neighbour. Many Rastas believe that to determine whether they should undertake a certain act or not, they should consult the presence of Jah within themselves.

Rastafari emphasises the idea of "living naturally". It presents Africa as the natural abode of black Africans—a continent where they can live according to African culture and be themselves on a physical, emotional, and intellectual level. Practitioners believe that Westerners in Babylon have detached themselves from nature through technological development and thus become slothful and decadent. Some Rastas believe they should adhere to African laws rather than those of Babylon, potentially putting them at odds with the law of the countries in which they reside. In emphasising this Afrocentric approach, Rastafari expresses overtones of black nationalism.

The scholar Maureen Warner-Lewis observed that Rastafari combined a "radical, even revolutionary" stance on socio-political issues, particularly regarding race, with a "profoundly traditional" approach on other issues. Rastas typically look critically upon capitalism, instead favouring small-scale, pre-industrial and agricultural societies. Some Rastas have promoted activism for socio-political reform; others believe in awaiting change through divine intervention. In Jamaica, Rastas typically do not vote, dismissing politics as "politricks", and rarely involve themselves in political parties or unions. The Rasta tendency to believe that socio-political change is inevitable opens the religion up to leftist criticism that it discourages attempts to alter the status quo. Other Rastas do engage in political activism; the Ghanaian Rasta singer-songwriter Rocky Dawuni for instance campaigned for democratic elections, while in Grenada, many Rastas joined the People's Revolutionary Government formed in 1979.

Gender roles

Main article: Rasta views on gender and sexuality

Drawing on the Book of Leviticus and the writings of Paul the Apostle, Rastafari has traditionally presented women as morally weak and susceptible to deception by evil. It often deems women impure while menstruating; this is cited as a reason for women sitting separately from men during worship. Rastafari often also teaches that men in the African diaspora have been emasculated by Babylon and that their manhood must be restored.

The Rasta Shop, a store selling items associated with Rastafari in the U.S. state of Oregon

Rastafari affirms patriarchal principles, calling for women to submit to male leadership. External observers—including scholars such as Cashmore and Edmonds—have claimed that Rastafari accords women an inferior position to men. The academic Maureen Rowe suggested that women were willing to join the religion despite its restrictions because they valued the structure and discipline it provided. Attitudes to women within Rastafari have changed since the 1970s, however, with a growing "womanist" movement and increasing numbers of women in leadership positions.

Rasta women usually wear clothing that covers their head and hides their body contours. Trousers are usually avoided, with long skirts preferred. Women are expected to cover their head while praying, and in some Rasta groups this is expected of them whenever in public. According to traditional Rasta discourse, this dress code is necessary to prevent the sexual objectification of women. Rasta men do not usually have such a dress code. Some Rasta women have challenged gender norms by wearing their hair uncovered in public and donning trousers.

Sexuality

Historically, Rastafari did not promote monogamy. Although not especially common, polygamy is permitted for Rasta men, while women are expected to reserve their sexual activity for one male partner. Common-law marriage is the norm, although many Rastas are legally married. Rasta men refer to their female partners as "queens", "empresses", or "lionesses", while the males in these relationships are known as "kingmen". Reproduction is encouraged, with great importance placed on family life and raising children. Traditionally, the religion emphasised men's role in child-rearing, associating this with the recovery of African manhood. Women would often work, sometimes while the man raised the children at home.

As Rastafari regards procreation as the purpose of sex, oral and anal sex are usually forbidden. Both contraception and abortion are similarly censured; many Rastas believe these were inventions of Babylon to decrease the black African birth-rate. Rastas typically express hostility to homosexuality, citing negative references to same-sex sexual activity in the Bible. Many Rastas typically saw the growing societal acceptance of birth control and homosexuality as evidence of Babylon's degeneration as it approaches its demise. LGBTQ+ Rastas may conceal their sexual orientation because of these attitudes.

Practices

Main article: Livity (spiritual concept)

Rastas call their cultural and religious practices "livity". The religion does not emphasise hierarchies, having no professional priesthood; Rastas believe there is no need for a mediator between the worshipper and Jah. It nevertheless has "elders", an honorific title bestowed upon Rastas with a good reputation. They do not necessarily have administrative responsibilities, although may oversee gatherings, where they are often responsible for helping to interpret current events in terms of Biblical scripture. Elders often communicate with each other to plan movement events and form strategies.

Grounding

A group of Rastas in Liberia celebrating Marcus Garvey's birthday

The term "grounding" is used among Rastas to refer to the establishment of relationships between like-minded practitioners. Groundings often take place in a commune or yard, and are presided over by an elder, who is charged with keeping discipline and can ban individuals from attending. The number of participants can range from a handful to several hundred. Activities that take place at groundings include the playing of drums, chanting, the singing of hymns, and the recitation of poetry. Cannabis, known as ganja, is often smoked. Most groundings contain only men, although some Rasta women have established their own all-female grounding circles.

A central activity at groundings is "reasoning". This is a discussion among assembled Rastas about the religion's principles and their relevance to current events. These discussions are supposed to be non-combative, although attendees can point out the fallacies in any arguments presented. Those assembled inform each other about the revelations that they have received through meditation and dream. Each contributor is supposed to push the boundaries of understanding until the entire group has gained greater insight into the topic under discussion. In meeting together with like-minded individuals, reasoning helps Rastas to reassure one another of the correctness of their beliefs. Rastafari meetings are opened and closed with prayers. These involve supplication to Jah for the vulnerable and needy, calls for the destruction of the Rastas' enemies, and closing statements of adoration.

Princes shall come out of Egypt, Ethiopia shall stretch forth her hand unto God. Oh thou God of Ethiopia, thou God of divine majesty, thy spirit come within our hearts to dwell in the parts of righteousness. That the hungry be fed, the sick nourished, the aged protected, and the infant cared for. Teach us love and loyalty as it is in Zion.

— Opening passage of a common Rasta prayer

The largest groundings were known as "groundations" or "grounations" in the 1950s, although they were subsequently re-termed "Nyabinghi Issemblies". The term "Nyabinghi" is adopted from the name of a mythical African queen. Nyabinghi Issemblies are often held on dates associated with Ethiopia and Haile Selassie. These include Ethiopian Christmas (7 January), the day on which Haile Selassie visited Jamaica (21 April), Selassie's birthday (23 July), Ethiopian New Year (11 September), and Selassie's coronation day (2 November). Some Rastas also organise Nyabinghi Issemblies to mark Jamaica's Emancipation Day (1 August) and Marcus Garvey's birthday (17 August).

Nyabinghi Issemblies typically take place in rural areas, being situated in the open air or in temporary structures—known as "temples" or "tabernacles"—constructed for the purpose. Any elder seeking to sponsor a Nyabinghi Issembly must have approval from other elders and requires the adequate resources to organise such an event. The assembly usually lasts between three and seven days. During the daytime, attendees engage in food preparation, ganja smoking, and reasoning, while at night they focus on drumming and dancing around bonfires. Nyabinghi Issemblies often attract Rastas from a wide area, including from different countries. They establish and maintain a sense of solidarity among the Rasta community and cultivate a feeling of collective belonging. Unlike in many other religions, rites of passage play no role in Rastafari; on death, various Rastas have been given Christian funerals by their relatives, as there are no established Rasta funeral rites.

Use of cannabis

See also: Cannabis and religion

Rastafari's principal ritual is the smoking of ganja, also known as marijuana or cannabis. Rastas give various names to the plant, including callie, Iley, "the herb", "the holy herb", "the grass", and "the weed". Cannabis is usually smoked during groundings, although some practitioners also smoke it in other contexts. Some Rastas smoke cannabis very frequently, something other practitioners regard as excessive. Many practitioners also consume cannabis in a tea, as a spice in cooking, and as an ingredient in medicine. Not all Rastas use cannabis; many abstainers explain that they have already achieved a higher level of consciousness and thus do not require it.

A flowering cannabis plant; the smoking of which is considered a Biblically sanctioned sacrament by Rastas

In Rastafari, cannabis is considered a sacrament. Rastas argue that its use is promoted in the Bible, specifically in Genesis, Psalms, and Revelation. They regard it as having healing properties, eulogise it for inducing feelings of "peace and love", and claim that it cultivates a form of personal introspection that allows the smokers to discover their inner divinity. Some Rastas believe that cannabis smoke serves as an incense that counteracts immoral practices in society.

Rastas typically smoke cannabis in the form of a large, hand-rolled cigarette known as a spliff. This is often rolled together while a prayer is offered to Jah; the spliff is lit and smoked only when the prayer is completed. At other times, cannabis is smoked in a water pipe referred to as a chalice: styles include kutchies, chillums, and steamers. The pipe is passed in a counter-clockwise direction around the assembled circle of Rastas.

There are various options that might explain how cannabis entered Rastafari. In the 19th century, enslaved Bakongo people arrived in Jamaica, where they established the religion of Kumina. In Kumina, cannabis was smoked to facilitate possession by ancestral spirits. It may have been through Kumina that cannabis became part of Rastafari. A second possible source was the use of cannabis in Hindu rituals. Hindu indentured servants arrived in Jamaica from British India between 1834 and 1917, and brought cannabis with them. Cannabis use may also have been influenced by the widespread recreational use of cannabis among Afro-Jamaicans in the early 20th century. Early Rastafarians may have taken an element of Jamaican culture which they associated with their peasant past and the rejection of capitalism and sanctified it by according it Biblical correlates.

In many countries—including Jamaica—cannabis is illegal and by using it, Rastas protest the laws of Babylon. In the United States, for example, thousands of practitioners have been arrested because of their possession of the drug. Rastas have also advocated for the legalisation of cannabis in those jurisdictions where it is illegal; in 2015, Jamaica decriminalized personal possession of marijuana up to two ounces, and in 2019 Barbados legalised cannabis' use in religious settings.

Music

A Rasta playing a batá drum

Rastafari music developed at reasoning sessions, where drumming, chanting, and dancing are all present. Rasta music is performed to praise and commune with Jah, and to reaffirm the rejection of Babylon. Rastas believe that their music has healing properties, with the ability to cure colds, fevers, and headaches. Many of these songs are sung to the tune of older Christian hymns, but others are original Rasta creations.

The bass-line of Rasta music is provided by the akete, a three-drum set, which is accompanied by percussion instruments like rattles and tambourines. A syncopated rhythm is then provided by the fundeh drum. In addition, a batá drum improvises over the rhythm. The different components of the music are regarded as displaying different symbolism; the bassline symbolises blows against Babylon, while the lighter beats denote hope for the future.

As Rastafari developed, popular music became its chief communicative medium. During the 1960s, ska was a popular musical style in Jamaica, and although its protests against social and political conditions were mild, it gave early expression to Rasta socio-political ideology. Particularly prominent in the connection between Rastafari and ska were the musicians Count Ossie and Don Drummond. Ossie was a drummer who believed that black people needed to develop their own style of music; he was heavily influenced by Burru, an Afro-Jamaican drumming style. Ossie subsequently popularised this new Rastafari ritual music by playing at various groundings and groundations around Jamaica, with songs like "Another Moses" and "Babylon Gone" reflecting Rasta influence. Rasta themes also appeared in Drummond's work, with songs such as "Reincarnation" and "Tribute to Marcus Garvey".

1968 saw the development of reggae in Jamaica, a musical style typified by slower, heavier rhythms than ska and the increased use of Jamaican Patois. Like calypso, reggae was a medium for social commentary, although it demonstrated a wider use of radical political and Rasta themes than were previously present in Jamaican popular music. Reggae artists incorporated Rasta ritual rhythms, and also adopted Rasta chants, language, motifs, and social critiques. Songs like The Wailers' "African Herbsman" and