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Nile

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Nile
A wide, calm river, under a blue sky, with many bushes on its sandy banks.
The Third Cataract of the Nile
A map of northeast Africa; the Nile River is a wiggly line running from a large lake at the bottom, to the Mediterranean Sea at the top.
Location
CountriesBurundi, DR Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda[1]
Major citiesBahir Dar, Cairo, Khartoum, Jinja, Juba
Physical characteristics
SourceRukarara River, Rwanda[2][lower-alpha 1]
 • coordinates2°19′35″S 29°21′30″E / 2.32639°S 29.35833°E / -2.32639; 29.35833[3]
 • elevation2,539 m (8,330 ft)[3]
MouthMediterranean Sea
 • coordinates
30°10′21″N 31°8′24″E / 30.17250°N 31.14000°E / 30.17250; 31.14000
 • elevation
0 m (0 ft)
Length7,088 km (4,404 mi)[3][lower-alpha 2]
Basin size2,927,843 kmTempleeti:Super[6]
Discharge 
 • locationAswan, Egypt
 • average2,757 m3/sec[7][lower-alpha 3]

Nịle bụ nnukwu osimiri na-asọba n'ebe ugwu na ọwụwa anyanwụ Afrịka nke na-asọba n'ime Oké Osimiri Mediterenian. Na 7,088 kilometers (4,404 mi) ogologo, ọ bụ osimiri kachasị ogologo n'ụwa,[lower-alpha 2] ọ bụ ezie na olu mmiri ọ na-ebu bụ pere mpe karịa osimiri ndị ọzọ dị mkpa dịka Amazon ma ọ bụ Congo. Osimiri Naịl arụwo ọrụ dị mkpa n'akụkọ ihe mere eme gburugburu ebe obibi, akụ na ụba, na omenala nke Afrịka ruo ọtụtụ puku afọ.

Osimiri Naịl nwere isi ndị na-asọba abụọ: Nịl Ọcha na Nịl Anụnụ. Osimiri Ọcha dị ogologo ma a na-ewere ya dị ka isi mmiri, mana Osimiri Ọcha na-enye ihe karịrị okpukpu abụọ nke Osimiri Ọcha. Osimiri Ọcha na-amalite nso Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria ma na-agafe Uganda na South Sudan; ebe Osimiri Blue na-amalite nso Ọdọ Mmiri Tana na Etiopia ma na-asọba na Sudan site na ndịda ọwụwa anyanwụ. Osimiri abụọ ahụ na-ezukọ n'isi obodo Khartoum nke Sudan. Site n'ebe ahụ, Osimiri Naịl na-asọga n'ebe ugwu site na Ọzara Nubia ruo isi obodo Ijipt, Cairo, wee mechaa gbapụta n'ime Oké Osimiri Mediterenian dị nso na Alexandria, ebe o mepụtara nnukwu delta osimiri.

N'ihe gbasara ala, osimiri Naịl bụ obere osimiri ma ọ na-agbaso ụzọ ya ugbu a ihe dị ka afọ 15,000. Mpaghara mmiri ya gbasaara mba iri na otu. Ọtụtụ mmiri dị na Naịl na-esi na mmiri ozuzo na mba ndị dị n'elu mmiri Etiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, na Uganda abịa. Mba ndị dị n'okpuru mmiri – Egypt, Sudan, na South Sudan – bụkarị ọzara ma na-ewepụ mmiri osimiri maka ịgba mmiri. Mba ndị ọzọ dị n'ime Osimiri Naịl kpamkpam ma ọ bụ akụkụ ya bụ Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eritrea, na Rwanda.

Naịl bụ ntọala nke mmepeanya Ijipt oge ochie, nke dabere na osimiri ahụ ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ akụkụ niile nke ndụ. mmiri kwa afọ nke osimiri ahụ tinyere ájá bara ụba n'akụkụ osimiri ahụ. Ala a kwadoro ihe ọkụkụ ndị mere ka ọha mmadụ mara mma nwee ike ito eto n'ọzara na-adịghị mma. Osimiri Naịl mere ka azụmaahịa, nkwukọrịta, njem, na ọchịchị dị mfe. Ndịda (n'elu mmiri) nke cataract nke Naịl nke abụọ dị Nubia, ebe obibi akụkọ ihe mere eme nke omenala Kerma na Alaeze Kushite. Ọtụtụ ndị Yuropu nwere mmasị na Osimiri Naịl, nchọpụta ha mere gburugburu Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria na ngwụcha narị afọ nke 19 bụkwa isi iyi nke osimiri ahụ. N'ime omenala ndị bi n'akụkụ osimiri Naịl n'oge a bụ Ndị Nilotic, ndị na-azụ ehi na-eme njem nlegharị anya, ndị na-azụ ehi na-eme njem nlegharị anya, ibugharị ehi ha n'oge kwesịrị ekwesị maka idei mmiri nke Naịl.

N'oge a, Naịl na-arụ ọrụ dị oke mkpa n'akụnụba Ijipt na Sudan, nke na-adabere na ya iji nye ala ubi sara mbara mmiri. Kemgbe ngwụcha narị afọ nke 20, arụọla ihe karịrị ọdọ mmiri iri na abụọ n'Osimiri Naịl iji nye mmiri mmiri na ịmepụta ọkụ eletrik. Ọdọ mmiri ndị a agbanweela usoro idei mmiri kwa afọ nke osimiri ahụ ma gbochie mbufe ájá n'okpuru ala, nke mere ka Osimiri Naịl belata. Ụfọdụ ihe mgbochi mmiri dịka Aswan High Dam na Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam – abụrụla isi iyi nke esemokwu ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị mba ụwa gbasara ụkọ mmiri, nchekwa, nchekwa nri, na Mbugharị mmanye nke ndị mmadụ.

Aha na isi ihe ọmụmụ

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Okwu Bekee bụ́ "Naịl" sitere na Latin Nilus na Grik ochie (Neilos), nke nwere ike ịbụ na ọ sitere na okwu Semitic naḥal, nke pụtara 'osimiri'.[9]

Egyptian hieroglyphs maka jtrw,
okwu maka 'osimiri' ma ọ bụ 'Naịl':[10][lower-alpha 4]

M17X1
D21		 G43N35
N35
N35

N'asụsụ oge ochie ndị Ijipt, e ji otu okwu ahụ mee ihe maka 'Naịl' na 'osimiri': jtrw.[11] Ndị Ijipt kpọrọ obodo ha kmt nke pụtara 'ojii', n'ihe gbasara agba gbara ọchịchịrị nke idei mmiri Naịl ka ha na-ebu ihe ndị dị n'elu osimiri.[12] Aha Bekee "Blue Nile" bụ nsụgharị nke aha Arabic Al-Baḥr Al-Azraq.[9]

N'oge a, osimiri ahụ nwere ọtụtụ aha dị iche iche n'ime Osimiri Naịl. Na Ijipt, a na-akpọ ya Al-Nīl, Baḥr Al-Nīl ma ọ bụ Nahr Al-Nīl.[13] Na mba Saụt Sudan, ndị Arabic na-akpọkarị ya mgbe ụfọdụ Baḥr el-Jebel, nke pụtara 'Osimiri Ugwu'.[14] Na Uganda, ndị na-asụ Luganda na-eji aha Kiyira.[15] Ụfọdụ ndị Nubia nke Ijipt na Sudan na-eji aha Nobiin Áman Dawū ('Mmiri Ukwu').[16]

Ọtụtụ osimiri ndị na-asọba (osimiri ndị pere mpe na-abanye na Naịl) na akụkụ nke osimiri ahụ gụnyere "Naịl" n'aha ha, gụnyere:

Isi mmalite

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A map of northeast Africa. The Nile is visible as a meandering blue line, running vertically. The river starts at the bottom in green forested area, and goes upward then ends in a blue sea at the top.
Osimiri Naịl nwere isii cataracts[lower-alpha 5] na ọtụtụ ebe dị iche iche.

Isi iyi nke Naịl bụ akụkụ nke Osimiri Rukara, na Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda, na 2°19′35″S 29°21′30″E / 2.32639°S 29.35833°E / -2.32639; 29.35833, n'elu 2,539 meters (8,330 ft).[2][lower-alpha 1][lower-alpha 6] A kọwara isi iyi ahụ dị ka ebe mmalite nke mmiri kachasị ogologo n'afọ niile na Mpaghara mmiri Naịl.[2] Site na isi iyi a, osimiri ahụ na-asọ 7,088 kilometers (4,404 mi) ruo n'ọnụ ya na Oké Osimiri Mediterenian.[2][lower-alpha 2] A tụrụ anya ya n'afọ 2009 n'akụkụ etiti osimiri ahụ site na iji onyonyo satịlaịtị.[2]

Isi iyi kachasị elu nke Naịl dị na mkpọda nke Rwenzori na Uganda.[23] A na-ejikọta Ugwu Ọnwa a ma ama, nke onye Gris na-enyocha mbara igwe Ptolemy kọwara, na Rwenzori.[23]

Isi iyi Naịl kacha dị na ndịda dị na Burundi n'otu n'ime isi nke Osimiri Ruvyironza, nke na-abanye n'ime Osimiri Kagera.[24] E wuru ihe ncheta dị nso na 1937 site n'aka Burkhart Waldecker dị nso na obodo Rutovu, dị nso na Ugwu Kikizi.[24][lower-alpha 7]

Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria – nke Tanzania, Uganda, na Kenya kesara – a na-akọwa mgbe ụfọdụ n'ụzọ na-ezighi ezi dị ka isi mmalite, n'ihi na ọ na-enye Naịl Ọcha nri site na mmiri ya na-asọpụta na Jinja, Uganda.[26][lower-alpha 8] Agbanyeghị, ụfọdụ ekwuola na isi iyi nke Naịl bụ igwe ojii mmiri ozuzo nke a na-ahụkarị n'elu Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria, n'ihi na ha na-enye aka na ọtụtụ mmiri dị n'ọdọ mmiri ahụ.[28]

Isi iyi nke mmiri mmiri Blue Nile dị nso n'obodo Gish Abay, ndịda Ọdọ Mmiri Tana.[29][lower-alpha 9]

Ọdịdị ala

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A map of northeast Africa, showing the location of several cities and tourist sights on the river
Mmiri nke Naịl na-amalite dịka mmiri ozuzo n'ugwu ndị dị n'ebe ndịda na ọwụwa anyanwụ nke Osimiri Naịl.

Osimiri Naịl bụ nnukwu osimiri dị n'ebe ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ Afrịka nke na-asọba n'Oké Osimiri Mediterenian. Osimiri Naịl bụ ala niile na-asọpụta n'ime Naịl, ọ na-ekpuchikwa 2,927,843km2 – ihe dị ka 10% nke kọntinent Afrịka (lee maapụ dị n'akụkụ).[6] Mba iri na otu dị n'ime ala ahụ kpamkpam ma ọ bụ akụkụ ya: Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, na Uganda.[30][lower-alpha 10] Ala mmiri a na-ekpuchi ọtụtụ ụdị ihu igwe, gburugburu ebe obibi, na ọdịdị ala dị iche iche, site na ọzara kpọrọ nkụ na ájá dị n'ebe ugwu, ruo ala mmiri dị larịị, nke apịtị dị n'etiti, ruo ugwu mmiri ozuzo na oke ọhịa dị na ndida.[32]

Enwere ike kewaa ala mmiri ahụ ụzọ asaa; mpaghara ise n'ime ha gụnyere ụzọ kachasị ogologo nke Naịl. Dịka ọ na-aga n'ihu n'usoro dị n'okpuru ala, mpaghara ise ndị a bụ: Ọdọ Mmiri Ukwu nke Afrịka, Ugwu Naịl, Naịl Ọcha, isi Naịl, na Mmiri Naịl. Mpaghara abụọ ọzọ gụnyere nnukwu mmiri: Blue Nile na Atbarah Osimiri.[9]

Ọdọ Mmiri Ukwu Afrịka

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Mpaghara ọdọ mmiri ukwu nke Afrịka nwere isi iyi nke Naịl yana ọtụtụ ọdọ mmiri buru ibu nke bụ akụkụ nke usoro Osimiri Naịl: Ọdọ mmiri Victoria, Ọdọ Mmiri Albert, Ọdọ Mmiri George, na Ọdọ Mmiri Edward.[33] Isi iyi nke Naịl bụ Osimiri Rukara n'ime ogige ntụrụndụ Nyungwe nke Rwanda,[2] ọ na-edugakwa na Osimiri Kagera nke na-asọba n'ime Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria.[9][lower-alpha 6] Ọ bụ ezie na ọ bụ nnukwu ọdọ mmiri – ọdọ mmiri mmiri nke abụọ kachasị ukwuu n'ụwa[lower-alpha 11] – Ọdọ mmiri Victoria dị obere nke ukwuu, nkezi omimi ya bụ 40 meters (130 ft).[35] Osimiri Naịl buru ụzọ nweta aha ahụ bụ "Naịl" ebe Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria na-awụpụ n'akụkụ ugwu ya: a na-akpọ akụkụ site n'ebe ahụ ruo Ọdọ Mmiri Albert Naịl Victoria.[9] E nwere mmiri mmiri abụọ – Ripon Falls na Owen Falls – ebe Naịl si apụta n'Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria, mana ha abụọ emeriela site na owuwu nke Nalubaale dam. Mgbe Bujagali Falls na Bujagali Power Station gasịrị, osimiri Victoria na-asọba n'ime Ọdọ Mmiri Kyoga. Mgbe ha si n'Ọdọ Mmiri Kyoga pụta, mmiri mmiri Osimiri Kafu na-esonyere osimiri ahụ, wee gafere Murchison Falls wee banye n'Ọdọ Mmiri Albert. N'adịghị ka Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria, Ọdọ Mmiri Albert bụ ọdọ mmiri miri emi nke ugwu gbara gburugburu. Osimiri ahụ na-esi n'Ọdọ Mmiri Albert pụọ n'akụkụ ugwu ya, ebe a na-akpọ ya Albert Nile; Ókèala osimiri a dị larịị ma obosara, ọ dịkwa mma maka ịnyagharị site na ụgbọ mmiri steamer.[36]

Ugwu Naịl

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Mpaghara nke abụọ nke Osimiri Naịl, nke na-aga n'ihu n'ala ala, bụ Ugwu Naịl (Arabic: Bahr al Jabal).[37] Mpaghara a na-amalite nso obodo Nimule, gbasaa ruo Ọdọ Mmiri No, ma dị kpamkpam n'ime South Sudan. Mgbe ọ gafere Nimule, osimiri ahụ gafere Fula Rapids wee gaa Juba – isi obodo South Sudan. Mgbe Juba gasịrị, Naịl gafere n'obodo Bor, wee banye Sudd, nnukwu apịtị dị n'ala dị larịị.[38] mkpọda nke ala dị na Sudd bụ naanị 1:13,000 ịrị elu n'elu ọsọ, ya mere osimiri ahụ na-ebelata ma na-agbasa. Osisi mara mma, gụnyere sedge, papyrus, na hyacinth mmiri nkịtị (ụdị ndị na-awakpo) na-emechi ụzọ mmiri ma na-eme ka njem sie ike. N'akụkụ ugwu nke apịtị Sudd, Naịl na-agafe n'Ọdọ Mmiri No, obere ọdọ mmiri ebe Osimiri Bahr el Ghazal na-esonyere Naịl (Arabic: 'gazelle river') – otu nke na-asọba n'ime mmiri si n'ọdịda anyanwụ.[36]

Otu nnukwu mmiri mmiri dị na mpaghara Ugwu Naịl bụ Bahr el Ghazal nke si ọdịda anyanwụ Sudan na-abata ma na-esonye na White Nile na Ọdọ Mmiri No. Mmiri mmiri nke Osimiri Bahr el Ghazal buru ibu nke dị ihe dịka square kilomita 860,000[39] – ma na-enweta nnukwu mmiri ozuzo, mana onyinye ya na Naịl dị obere ma e jiri ya tụnyere mmiri ndị ọzọ.[lower-alpha 12] Mmiri ya gụnyere Ọdọ Mmiri Kundi na Ọdọ Mmiri Keilak. Bahr el Ghazal na-agafe n'obodo Wau, South Sudan: ọ bụ iyi na-adịgide adịgide n'akụkụ ọwụwa anyanwụ Wau, mana ọ bụ iyi oge n'akụkụ ọdịda anyanwụ.[40]

Mpaghara Naịl Ọcha

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Aerial photograph of Khartoum, showing two rivers joining, each with a distinct coloration of its water
A na-ahụ agba dị iche iche nke Ọcha Nile (aka ekpe) na Blue Nile (aka nri) ebe ha jikọtara ọnụ iji mepụta isi Naịl (n'elu aka ekpe).

Na-aga n'ihu na mgbada ala, mpaghara nke atọ nke Osimiri Naịl bụ mpaghara Naịl Ọcha[lower-alpha 13] nke gụnyere otu akụkụ osimiri 800 kilometers (500 mi) site na nso Malakal ruo Khartoum, isi obodo Sudan. N'ebe ahụ ka Osimiri Naịl Naịl Na-agbakọta. Akụkụ a nke osimiri ahụ bụ nnukwu iyi dị jụụ, nke nwere nsọtụ apịtị n'akụkụ abụọ ahụ. Osimiri ebe a dị obere ma na-efunahụ nnukwu ihe n'ihi uzuoku.[9]

Ebe Naịl Ọcha na-ejikọta na Naịl Anụnụ, ha bụ agba dị iche iche nke ukwuu. Osimiri Naịl Ọcha na-acha ọcha n'ihi na ihe ndị dị n'ime ala ọ na-ebu gụnyere nnukwu quartz na feldspar. Nke a dị iche na Blue Nile nke na-ebu ihe ndị sitere na okwute basaltic nke Etiopia.[41]

Osimiri Sobat bụ mmiri nke na-esonye na Osimiri Ọcha dị nso na obodo Malakal (mgbe njikọta Bahr el Ghazal gasịrị, tupu Blue Nile). Mmiri ya nke gụnyere Machar Marshes[14] – na-ekpuchi ihe dị ka square kilomita 225,000.[42] Idei mmiri na-asọ n'etiti Julaị na Disemba n'etiti Sobat.[9]

Isi Naịl

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A large concrete building next to a placid lake. Many large power transmission towers are next to the building.
Aswan High Dam dị n'akụkụ Osimiri Naịl dị nso n'ókè dị n'etiti Ijipt na Sudan. Ihe ndị na-enye ọkụ eletrik ya nwere ike imepụta 2.1 gigawatts.[43]

Mpaghara nke anọ nke Osimiri Naịl – isi Naịl[lower-alpha 14] – sitere na Khartoum ruo Cairo, isi obodo Ijipt.[36] Mgbatị a nwere obosara na omimi otu nhata: ihe dị ka 500 meters (1,600 ft) obosara na 10 meters (33 ft) miri emi n'ebe kachasị omimi ya (mgbe ọ naghị anọ n'ime idei mmiri).[45] Obere oge ka ha hapụrụ Khartoum, osimiri ahụ banyere Sabaloka Game Reserve wee gafee nnukwu ọsọ ọsọ dị ike nke ụgbọ mmiri na-agaghị agafe. Nke a bụ nke isii (na nke kachasị elu) n'ime isii cataracts nke Naịl. Osimiri Atbarah – nke bụ isi iyi mmiri – na-esonye na Naịl, nke na-esochi nnukwu mgbagọ dị ka S gaa n'ọdịda anyanwụ. A na-ahụ cataracts anọ ọzọ (nke nọmba ya bụ 5, 4, 3, na 2) n'ime nnukwu usoro S a, nke na-eme ka osimiri ahụ ghara ngafe; ọ bụ ezie na ụgbọ mmiri nwere ike ịgagharị n'ebe dị jụụ n'etiti cataracts. Osimiri ahụ wee banye n'ime ebe nchekwa mmiri: Ọdọ Mmiri Nasser. Ọdọ mmiri a – bụ ọdọ mmiri nke abụọ kachasị ukwuu n'ụwa nke mmadụ mere – ka e wuru mgbe e wuru Aswan High Dam na Ijipt, ma jupụta ihe karịrị 480 kilometers (300 mi) nke Naịl. Aswan Low Dam – kacha ochie ma dị obere karịa High Dam – dị n'okpuru Aswan High Dam, nso ebe mbụ Nile cataract dị (nke dị ugbu a n'ime mmiri). Site na ọdọ mmiri ndị a, Naịl na-asọfe ihe dị ka 800 kilometers (500 mi) site na ala limestone, ókèala ya nwere ọtụtụ ala ubi a na-agba mmiri, ruo mgbe ọ ruru Cairo.[36]

Delta Naịl

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A photograph of north Egypt, taken from space. The Nile terminates by flowing into the Mediterranean Sea, forming a large, triangular area of land.
Naịl Delta bụ nnukwu mpaghara akwụkwọ nri nwere akụkụ atọ dị n'elu foto a, ebe osimiri ahụ na-asọba n'ime Oké Osimiri Mediterenian.

Mpaghara nke ise, ma nke ikpeazụ, nke gbara Osimiri Naịl gburugburu bụ Nile Delta, nnukwu triangle delta osimiri (ihe dị ka 22,000km2)[46] nke sitere na Cairo ruo Oké Osimiri Mediterenian.[9] Osimiri ahụ na-ekewa ụzọ abụọ dị mkpa n'ime delta: alaka Rosetta na alaka Damietta. Oke olu nke delta (gụnyere akụkụ ndị dị n'okpuru mmiri) dị ihe dị ka 150,000km3. E kere delta ahụ ruo ọtụtụ nde afọ, e wuru ya site na ájá e si n'elu mmiri gbadaa osimiri ahụ.[47] Kemgbe e mechara Aswan High Dam n'afọ 1970, delta amalitela ịbelata n'ihi mbuze sitere na mmiri ozuzo n'Oké Osimiri Mediterenian. N'oge gara aga, ala ọhụrụ na-abata n'ụdị ájá dị n'akụkụ osimiri ahụ na-ebu, na-edozi mbuze; mana mmiri ahụ na-ejide ájá n'ime ebe nchekwa mmiri ya, na-egbochi ájá ọhụrụ iru na delta.[48]

Osimiri Naịl Na-acha Anụnụ

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A map of Ethiopia, showing a part of the Blue Nile and Lake Tana.
Isi iyi nke Blue Nile bụ Gish Abay dị n'okpuru akara ahụ mara mma. Osimiri ahụ na-asọga n'ebe ugwu site n'ebe ahụ ruo Ọdọ Mmiri Tana n'elu.

Ụzọ kachasị ogologo nke Naịl – nke gụnyere mmiri iyi nke Naịl Ọcha – nwere ọtụtụ mmiri iyi ndị ọzọ. Ebe mmiri mmiri nke Blue Nile na Atbarah mejupụtara mpaghara abụọ ikpeazụ nke Osimiri Naịl.[9]

Mmiri Naịl Anụnụ Naịl si n'ugwu dị na Etiopia pụta ebe ọ malitere dị ka iyi a na-akpọ Abay dị nso n'obodo Gish Abay: Gish bụ okwu Amharic nke pụtara 'isi iyi', Abay bụkwa aha iyi ahụ.[49] Gish Abay na-asọba n'ime Ọdọ Mmiri Tana, nnukwu ọdọ mmiri dị omimi, nke nwere otu mmiri na-asọpụta ebe ọ na-anabata aha "Blue Nile". Osimiri ahụ na-eme okirikiri sara mbara: nke mbụ gaa ndịda, wee gaa ọdịda anyanwụ site na nnukwu ugwu dị egwu 2 kilometers (6,600 ft) miri emi, wee si n'ebe ugwu gafere South Sudan banye Sudan, ebe ọ na-esonye na White Nile na Khartoum iji mepụta isi Naịl.[50] N'akụkụ ya, Blue Nile na-emepụta ọkụ eletrik n'ọtụtụ ebe ọkụ eletrik, gụnyere ọrụ ọkụ eletrik Tis Abay na Blue Nile Falls, Ọdọ Mmiri Ukwu nke Renaissance nke Etiopia dị nso n'ókè dị n'etiti Etiopia na South Sudan, Mgbawa Roseires dị nso n'obodo Ad Damazin, na Mgbawa Sennar.[51] Nha nke ebe mmiri mmiri nke Blue Nile dị karịrị square kilomita 306,000.[52]

Osimiri Atbarah

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Osimiri Atbarah bụ otu mmiri nke Naịl nke na-ebilite n'ebe ugwu Etiopia, ma na-esonye na Naịl ihe dịka 320 kilometers (200 mi) n'ebe ugwu Khartoum.[53] Ebe mmiri ya dị n'ime ya karịrị square kilomita 204,000.[52] Atbarah na-asọ asọ nke ukwuu n'oge na mgbe oge mmiri ozuzo gasịrị na Etiopia (oge okpomọkụ na oge mgbụsị akwụkwọ), mana ọ nwere ike ịkpọ nkụ n'oge oyi na oge opupu ihe ubi. N'agbanyeghị na osimiri ahụ na-agafe oge ụfọdụ, ọ na-enye ihe karịrị pasentị iri nke mmiri niile Naịl na-asọpụta kwa afọ.[53] Dams on the Atbarah include the Khashm el-Girba Dam, the Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex, and the Tekezé Dam (on the Tekezé River tributary).[54]

Ọmụmụ Mmiri

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Chart showing monthly flow of the Nile in cubic meters per second. Values (January to December) are 1285.7, 1006.0, 831.3, 881.7, 828.7, 845.2, 1930.3, 6984.0, 7866.5, 4895.2, 2510.8, 1596.9.
Mmiri nke Osimiri Naịl na-asọfe n'afọ niile. Ọnụ (m3/sekọnd) a tụrụ na Dongola n'elu isi Naịl.[55][lower-alpha 15]

Mmiri na idei mmiri

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Ọ bụ ezie na Naịl bụ osimiri kachasị ogologo n'ụwa, ọ nweghị mwụpụta kachasị ukwuu. Mmiri ya dị ihe dị ka 87km3 kwa afọ[lower-alpha 3] – dị obere ma e jiri ya tụnyere osimiri ndị ọzọ dị mkpa. Mmiri Naịl na-asọpụta naanị ihe dịka 1% nke Amazon, 6% nke Congo, na 12% nke Yangtze.[56][lower-alpha 16]

Ntinye ego kwa afọ na isi osimiri Naịl site na isi iyi atọ bụ: 54% sitere na Blue Nile, pasentị iri atọ na abụọ (32%) sitere na Osimiri Ọcha (gụnyere onyinye sitere na mmiri Bahr el Ghazal na Sobat), na pasentị iri na anọ sitere na Atbarah.[57] Ugwu Nile nke Naịl Ọcha na Naịl Blue na-enwe mmiri ozuzo n'oge, mana mmiri Naịl Ọcha na-asọba n'ime Naịl Blue na-adịgide adịgide karịa Naịl Ọcha.[9] Nke a bụ n'ihi ọtụtụ ọdọ mmiri na ala mmiri dị n'Osimiri Naịl Ọcha, nke na-ebelata mmetụta mmiri ozuzo oge.[58] Ka Osimiri Naịl Ọcha na-agafe n'ime apịtị Sudd, ihe dị ka ọkara mmiri ahụ na-efunahụ uzuoku.[59]

N'ụzọ dị iche, mmiri nke Osimiri Blue Nile na-asọfe n'afọ niile: ọ na-eruba n'etiti Julaị na Ọktoba, n'ihi mmiri ozuzo.[9] Mmiri nke Osimiri Naịl Naịl Na-acha anụnụ anụnụ dị oke ukwuu n'oge ọkọchị nke na Osimiri Naịl Ọcha na-alaghachi azụ n'oge a na confluence.[60] N'oge idei mmiri n'oge ọkọchị, ihe ndị dị na isi Naịl bụ ihe dịka pasentị iri asaa (70%) site na Blue Nile, ihe dịka pasentị iri (20%) site na Atbarah, ihe dịka pasentị iri (10%) site na White Nile.[9] N'oge oke idei mmiri ahụ, mmiri na-asọba n'ime Ọdọ Mmiri Nasser kwa ụbọchị dị ihe dị ka 0.71km3, ihe dị ka okpukpu atọ nkezi kwa ụbọchị kwa afọ nke 0.23km3 kwa ụbọchị.[61][lower-alpha 15][lower-alpha 17]

Tupu e wuo ihe mgbochi mmiri n'elu osimiri Naịl, mmiri Naịl na-asọ na Ijipt na-agbanwe agbanwe n'oge: ọ na-arị elu n'oge ọkọchị/oge mgbụsị akwụkwọ; ọ na-ebelata n'oge oyi/oge opupu ihe ubi.[lower-alpha 18] Agbanyeghị, mgbe e wuru Aswan High Dam – nke mepụtara ebe nchekwa mmiri nke nwere ike ijide ihe dị ka afọ abụọ nke mmiri iyi – mmiri si n'ọdọ mmiri ahụ na-asọpụta ugbu a anaghị agbanwe agbanwe n'afọ niile.[64][lower-alpha 19]

Njem mbupu mmiri

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Osimiri Naịl na-ebu ihe ndị dị n'ala ala. mmegharị ihe ndị dị n'ala ala ka a na-ekewa dị ka ihe ndị a kwụsịrị (ihe ndị a kwụnyere n'ime mmiri) ma ọ bụ ibu akwa (ihe ndị dị n'ala osimiri nke na-atụgharị ma ọ bụ na-ada n'ala).[66] Pasentị iri itoolu na asaa nke ihe ndị dị n'ime ala ndị Naịl na-ebu na-esi na Atbarah na Blue Nile, ha abụọ si na Etiopia.[67] Mbuze na mbufe ájá na-eme naanị n'oge oge mmiri ozuzo nke Etiopia mgbe mmiri ozuzo dị oke elu na Ugwu Etiopia; N'afọ fọdụrụnụ, nnukwu osimiri ndị na-asọba Etiopia n'ime Naịl na-enwe obere mmiri.[9] Ala dị na Naịl Delta malitere dị ka nkume na Etiopia. Ọnụọgụ nkume ndị gbawara n'ime afọ nde iri atọ gara aga site na isi mmiri Naịl Etiopia dị ihe dị ka 102,000km3, nke dị ka olu ala dị na Naịl Delta (gụnyere akụkụ mmiri dị n'okpuru mmiri) nke dị ihe dị ka 150,000km3.[68]

Mmiri mmiri nke osimiri na-ebuga n'ime ebe a na-echekwa ihe nwere ike ịdaba n'ime ebe a na-echekwa ihe ma belata ikike nchekwa ya. Nsụda mmiri gbakọtara n'azụ Sennar Dam, Roseires Dam (n'elu Blue Nile), na Khashm el Girba Dam (n'elu Atbarah) ebelatala ikike nchekwa nke ebe nchekwa ha nke ukwuu kemgbe e wuru ha.[69]

E depụtara njem kwa afọ nke a tụrụ n'ọtụtụ ebe n'okpuru.[70][lower-alpha 20] Pasentị ibu ihe ndina bụ oke nke ihe ndina na mkpokọta (ihe ndina na ihe ndị a kwụsiri ike). A chịkọtara data a tupu e wuo Akwa Mmiri Renaissance Ukwu nke Etiopia, nke nwere mmetụta dị ukwuu na ibu ihe ndị dị n'ala ala nke ọdọ mmiri ahụ.[70]

  • Gilgel Abay, Ethiopia : Nde tọn 7.6 nde nke nkwụsịtụ, yana 0.7% ọzọ nke ibu ihe ndina
  • El Deim (n'ókè Etiopia na Sudan): tọn nde 140[69]
  • Aswan, Egypt: 0.14 nde tọn nke nkwụsịtụ, yana 28% nke ibu ihe ndina ọzọ
  • Beni Sweif, Egypt: Nde tọn nde 0.5 nke nkwụsịtụ, yana pasentị iri abụọ ọzọ nke ibu ihe ndina
  • Qena, Egypt: 0.27 nde tọn nke nkwụsịtụ, yana 27% nke ibu ihe ndina ọzọ
  • Sohag, Egypt: Ngụkọta nde tọn 1.5 nke ihe eji arụ ọrụ, yana pasentị 13 ọzọ nke ihe eji arụ ọrụ n'elu akwa

Isi iyi mmiri na sink

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A schematic diagram shows water movements around a piece of ground. Arrows show water moving upward due to evaporation and transpiration; other arrows show water moving downward into groundwater recharge.
A na-enyocha nhazi mmiri dị na Basin Naịl site na iji hydrology: mmiri sitere na mmiri ozuzo na-adaba site na mmiri si na ala, uzuoku, na iyi.

Ka osimiri ahụ na-agbada ala, ọ na-amụba olu ya n'ebe ụfọdụ ma na-ebelata olu ya n'ebe ndị ọzọ. Mpaghara bụ "isi iyi" ma ọ bụrụ na mpaghara ahụ enye mmiri; n'aka nke ọzọ, mpaghara bụ "mkpọmkpọ mmiri" ma ọ bụrụ na mpaghara ahụ ewepụ mmiri.[71][lower-alpha 21] Ịchọpụta isi iyi na ebe mkpọmkpọ mmiri dị mkpa nye ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị na-amụ banyere mmegharị mmiri (hydrology), tinyere ndị na-eme iwu na-ekwurịta okwu gbasara ikekọrịta mmiri.[72][lower-alpha 22]

Mpaghara mmiri dị n'ime Osimiri Naịl bụ ebe mmiri si apụta bụ mpaghara mmiri dị n'elu mmiri gụnyere Ugwu Etiopia na mpaghara Ọdọ Mmiri Ukwu Afrịka. A na-ahụkarị ebe mmiri na-amịkọrọ mmiri n'ógbè ndị dị n'ala ala, gụnyere South Sudan, Sudan, na Egypt.[75][lower-alpha 15]

A na-eji usoro nhazi mmiri achọpụta mpaghara ndị bụ isi iyi na ndị bụ sink. Nhazi mmiri bụ ụkpụrụ mmiri nke na-ekwu na mmiri na-abanye n'ógbè ahụ site na mmiri na-apụ na mpaghara ahụ.[76] Maka mpaghara enyere, ndị ọkachamara na mmiri na-atụ (ma ọ bụ na-eme atụmatụ) mmiri ozuzo, anwụ, transpiration, recharge mmiri n'ime ala, ọnụ mmiri jupụtara n'ọdọ mmiri, na net streamflow. Ịtụle ụkpụrụ ndị a ga-egosi ma mpaghara ọ bụ isi iyi ma ọ bụ sink. N'ozuzu, mpaghara bụ isi iyi ma ọ bụrụ na mmiri iyi dị mma; n'aka nke ọzọ, mpaghara bụ sink ma ọ bụrụ na mmiri iyi dị mma.[77][lower-alpha 23]

Isi mmalite na ebe na amị mmiri: mba dị iche iche

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Tebụl na-esote na-achịkọta nha nha mmiri maka mba ndị dị n'ime Osimiri Naịl. Ewepụrụ akụkụ ụfọdụ nke mba ndị na-abụghị Naịl n'ihe gbasara ụkpụrụ ndị a.

Igodo maka ogidi "Isi/Sink"
Templeeti:D-PObodo a bụ isi iyi mmiri dị mkpa
Templeeti:D-NObodo a bụ ebe mmiri na apụ nke ukwuu
Templeeti:D-WMba ahụ abụghị isi iyi ma ọ bụ sink dị mkpa

A na-egosi ọtụtụ data kwa-basin dị ka nha kwa afọ (na-abụkarị na km3); mana a na-egosikwa ụfọdụ data dị ka uru "omimi" hà nhata (millimita kwa afọ, nke na-ekpuchi basin dum).[78]

Ntụle mmiri obodo (kwa afọ)[1][lower-alpha 15][lower-alpha 24]
Country Source/Sink
(water bal km3)		 Basin
Area km2[lower-alpha 25]		 Precip km3 Evap km3 Runoff km3
Burundi Templeeti:D-W (2)13,24014133
DR Congo Templeeti:D-W (0)19,91923230
Egypt Templeeti:D-N (−39)235,1084440
Eritrea Templeeti:D-W (2)24,42714120
Ethiopia Templeeti:D-P (164)363,775459295138
Kenya Templeeti:D-P (27)49,513764923
Rwanda Templeeti:D-W (1)20,67621204
South Sudan Templeeti:D-N (−146)617,25661275792
Sudan Templeeti:D-N (−81)1,226,66036444523
Tanzania Templeeti:D-P (38)120,50616012218
Uganda Templeeti:D-P (25)236,76330127622
Total 2,927,8432,0482,056324

Isi mmalite na sink: ebe ndị dị n'ala

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A map of northeast Africa. The Nile River is drawn, and there are a dozen landmarks shown on the map, at various points of the river
Tebụl nhazi mmiri nke akụkọ a nwere ozi gbasara etu mmiri si aga n'ebe iri na abụọ egosiri na map a.[79][lower-alpha 26]

Ụzọ ọzọ e si enyocha nguzozi mmiri nke Naịl bụ ikewa ala ahụ n'ụzọ mpaghara (ma leghara ókèala mba anya). Tebụl na-esote kewara Osimiri Naịl n'ime obere bezin iri na abụọ, ma chịkọta data nguzozi mmiri nke obere bezin ọ bụla. Data a dabere na nha emere na iri na abụọ ọdụ nha osimiri.[78][lower-alpha 26] Ebe ndị a, nke egosiri na map dị n'akụkụ, kewara Osimiri Naịl ka ọ bụrụ obere ebe ndị a. A na-akpọ ha aha nke ọ bụla n'ime ha site na ebe ha na-agbada. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri Murchison Falls (2) dị n'okpuru ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri Lake Victoria (1), ya mere a na-akpọ ebe a na-adọba mmiri dị n'etiti ha ebe a na-akpọ ebe a na-adọba mmiri Murchison Falls.[80][lower-alpha 26][lower-alpha 27]

Nha mmiri mpaghara (kwa afọ)[79][lower-alpha 15][lower-alpha 24]
Basin's
downstream
station		 Source/Sink
(water bal km3)		 Basin
Area km2		 Precip km3 Evap km3 Runoff km3
1 Lake Victoria outlet[lower-alpha 28] Templeeti:D-P (74)264,25935327957
2 Murchison Falls[lower-alpha 29] Templeeti:D-P (15)85,513109949
3 Mongalla[lower-alpha 30] Templeeti:D-W (1)131,6911591585
4 Malakal[lower-alpha 31] Templeeti:D-N (−159)925,160798957150
5 Khartoum[lower-alpha 32] Templeeti:D-N (−40)257,13013417414
6 Dam[81] Templeeti:D-P (105)188,29624614270
7 Khartoum[lower-alpha 33] Templeeti:D-W (10)118,65196729
8 Khashm el Girba[lower-alpha 34] Templeeti:D-P (30)100,318956610
9 Mouth of Atbarah River[lower-alpha 35] Templeeti:D-W (−3)104,05122251
11 Aswan Dam[81] Templeeti:D-N (−10)188,0112130
12 Cairo/Delta[lower-alpha 36] Templeeti:D-N (−10)145,2933120

Nilometers

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The interior of a large human-made stone structure. Many steps lead downward to the lower levels.
E jiri Nilometer a dị na Roda Island tụọ ọkwa Naịl.[83]

Ịtụle mmiri Naịl dị oke mkpa n'inyere ndị Ijipt aka ijikwa nchekwa na ịgba mmiri ha. A na-eji Simple gauges, nke a na-akpọ nilometers, atụ ọkwa Naịl ruo ọtụtụ puku afọ.[84] Idei mmiri zuru oke n'Ijipt  – nke na-adịghị oke elu ma ọ dịghịkwa ala – bụ mmụba 6-meter (20 ft) n'elu ọkwa mmiri na-abụghị idei mmiri.[45] Idei mmiri ọ bụla dị elu ma dị njọ nwere ike imebi obodo osimiri ahụ; ájá ọ bụla dị ala ma na-eme nri agaghị ejupụta n'ala ubi.[84] A na-eji nilometer dị mkpa eme ihe na Roda Island kemgbe ihe dị ka afọ 622 OA; ndị Ijipt debeere ndekọ nke ọkwa osimiri kachasị elu na nke kacha nta site na nha ahụ ruo 1921.[83] A malitere itinye ihe nlele ọgbara ọhụrụ iji tụọ ọkwa osimiri n'afọ 1860, e tinyere ihe nlele ndị na-atụkwa ugbu a – nke osimiri ahụ nke na-enye ozi ziri ezi karị – malitere na 1900.[83]

Ọmụmụ ihe gbasara gburugburu ebe obibi

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Anụmanụ

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A hippopotamus standing on the grassy shore of a lake, with bushes in the background.
Hippopotamus amphibius nso Ọdọ Mmiri Edward, otu n'ime ọdọ mmiri ndị na-azù Naịl nri

A na-eme atụmatụ na ọnụọgụ azụ̀ niile a hụrụ na Osimiri Naịl karịrị narị asatọ. Naanị n'ime osimiri ahụ, a hụrụ ụdị azụ̀ 128, nke ezinụlọ 27.[85] Ọtụtụ n'ime ụdị anụmanụ ndị a bụ nọ n'ime ezinụlọ anọ a: Cichlidae (cichlids), Cyprinidae (carp), Mormyridae (elephantfish), na Mochokidae (catfish).[86] A na-ahụ ọtụtụ ụdị Cichlid n'Ọdọ Mmiri Ukwu Afrịka.[85]

Tinyere azụ̀, anụmanụ ndị na-ebi na mmiri Naịl mgbe ụfọdụ gụnyere hippos, agụ iyi, na agịgọ Afrịka. Ndị ọzọ bi na mmiri gụnyere molluscs, crabs, na oporo.[87] Ọtụtụ anụmanụ bi n'ime gburugburu ebe obibi dị n'akụkụ osimiri, gụnyere enyí, antelope, na giraffe.[87] Ejula ndị a hụrụ n'ọdọ mmiri Naịl na-ebu ikpuru ndị na-adịghị mma – a maara dị ka ọbara flukes – nke na-akpata schistosomiasis nke na-emetụta anụ ụlọ na ụmụ mmadụ.[88]

Nnụnụ ndị bi na Naịl ma ọ bụ nso ya gụnyere heron, kingfisher, osprey, na ụdị stork – dị iche iche gụnyere shoebill.[87] Ụfọdụ ụdị nnụnụ ndị a na-ahụkarị na Osimiri Naịl (dịka blue-wing goose), ebe ụdị anụmanụ ndị ọzọ nwere nkesa cosmopolitan (gụnyere moorhen na osprey).[89] Ọtụtụ ụdị heron, ọbọgwụ, geese, na egret bi n'ime mmiri ahụ n'afọ niile, ụdị ọbọgwụ iri na anọ na geese na-abịa naanị maka ibi n'oge oyi.[89] N'ime gull na tern nọ n'ime ọdọ mmiri ahụ, ọtụtụ n'ime ha bụ ndị na-akwaga mba ọzọ. N'ime puku afọ gara aga, oke ụfọdụ ụdị anụmanụ ebelatala n'ihi mwakpo ụmụ mmadụ na-eme n'ebe obibi ha.[90]

Osisi

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A white flower and green leaves floating on the top of water.
Lotus ọcha nke Ijipt sitere na mmiri dị jụụ nke Osimiri Naịl.[91]

Mpaghara Ọdọ Mmiri Ukwu nke Osimiri Naịl gụnyere osisi dịka lili mmiri, papyrus, na water hyacinth. Mmiri hyacinth bụ ụdị osisi na-awakpo ihe, o metụtakwara ọnụọgụgụ anụmanụ ndị bi n'Ọdọ Mmiri Kyoga n'ụzọ dị njọ.[92] Osisi ndị a na-ahụkarị na apịtị Sudd gụnyere ụdị osisi ndị na-eto nke ọma n'ime idei mmiri dị omimi dịka Vossia, hippo grass, reed mace, ambatch, na papyrus. Sudd na-enwekwa ụdị anụmanụ ndị na-eto nke ọma n'ime idei mmiri dị omimi, dịka ọmụmaatụ Oryza, antelope grass, na Phragmites.[93]

Mmetọ

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N'akụkọ ihe mere eme, a maara mmiri Naịl dị ka ihe a na-aṅụ, mana na ngwụcha narị afọ nke 20, ọ dịghịzi mma n'ebe ụfọdụ.[94][lower-alpha 37] Mmetọ a na-apụtakarị ìhè n'Ọdọ Mmiri Tana, nso obodo ukwu, nakwa na Naịl Delta.[96]

Isi ihe ndị na-emetọ ihe na Naịl gụnyere ihe mkpofu ọrụ ugbo, ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe, na ihe mkpofu ezinụlọ. E nwere ụlọ ọrụ iri atọ na isii na-ewepụta ihe ndị na-emetọ ha ozugbo n'ime Osimiri Naịl, ebe iri anọ na otu n'ime ọwa mmiri. Ụdị ụlọ ọrụ ndị a bụ: kemịkalụ, ọkụ eletrik, injinia, fatịlaịza, nri, ígwè, igwu ala, mmanụ na ncha, pulp na akwụkwọ, ákwà na osisi. E nwere ihe karịrị ọwara mmiri ọrụ ugbo iri itoolu na-asọba n'ime Naịl nke gụnyere mmiri mkpofu ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe.[97]

Mmetọ osimiri kacha pụta ìhè n'etiti Aswan na Oké Osimiri Mediterenian. Mmetọ ebe ahụ na-esi n'ọrụ mmadụ, mmiri na-asọpụta n'ọrụ ugbo, na ihe mkpofu ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe. Ọnụọgụgụ nke ihe ndị na-emerụ ahụ na-abawanye ka osimiri na-asọda n'ala, n'ihi mmetụta nke ihe ndị na-emetọ ihe.[98] A na-enwe ike inweta oke mmiri dị n'akụkụ delta ahụ n'ihi na mmiri anaghị agbapụta nke ọma, nke na-eme ka ala dị larịị na nnukwu ájá dị n'akụkụ osimiri ka njọ.[99]

Na ngwụcha narị afọ nke 20, Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria nwetara mmụba eutrophication (ihe oriri karịrị akarị n'ọdọ mmiri ahụ nke na-eme ka osisi na algae too nke na-ebelata ikuku oxygen dị na mmiri). Eutrophication a bụ n'ihi ọrụ mmadụ, igbukpọ ọhịa, na omume ọrụ ugbo na-adịghị mma, nke kpatakwara algal bloom na mmụba ngwa ngwa nke hyacinth mmiri, nke mebiri usoro ihe dị ndụ.[100]

Nchekwa na mmetụta mmadụ

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A large waterfall, with dense foliage on both sides.
Murchison Falls na Osimiri Ọcha

Mmiri Naịl dị dịtụ mmiri ma dịkwa mmiri mmiri site na puku afọ 15 gara aga (kya) ruo puku afọ 5, nke mere ka e nwee ike ịmalite ọrụ ugbo buru ibu na Osimiri Naịl ihe dị ka puku afọ 5.[101] Kemgbe ahụ, mmụba nke ọrụ ugbo enweela mmetụta dị ukwuu n'ebe obibi, nke butere nnukwu mbibi nke ọhịa na mbuze ala.[102] Mmetụta ndị a ka njọ site na ọnọdụ kpọrọ nkụ n'Africa nke malitere ihe dị ka puku anọ. Ọnọdụ kpọrọ nkụ ndị a butere ụnwụ nri, nsogbu ọha mmadụ, na mmebi gburugburu ebe obibi.[102]

Ọtụtụ ụdị anụmanụ anwụọla n'ime Osimiri Naịl n'ihi ọrụ mmadụ. Ibis dị nsọ dị mkpa n'okpukpe Ijipt oge ochie, a chụkwara ọtụtụ nde ibis n'àjà n'ụzọ emume. Ụdị a gbapụrụ n'obodo Ijipt na ngwụcha narị afọ nke 19, mana ọ ka bụ ihe a na-ahụkarị na etiti na ndịda Afrịka.[103] N'Ijipt, oke ọnụọgụgụ mmadụ na owuwu nke Aswan High Dam emeela ka ọtụtụ ụdị osisi na anụmanụ dị iche iche nwụọ.[104]

Nịl perch dị ebe dị iche iche n'Africa, gụnyere Congo, mana ọ nọghị na Naịl ma ọ bụ ọdọ mmiri ya ruo mgbe e webatara ya n'Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria n'ụzọ nzuzo n'afọ 1950 iji mepụta azụ̀ ịkụ azụ.[105][lower-alpha 38] Oke osimiri Naịl mere ka e bibie ihe karịrị ụdị cichlids 500 na Lake Victoria, nke onye ọkà mmụta sayensị Les Kaufman kọwara dị ka mbibi mbụ nke oke ọkpụkpụ azụ nke ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị nwere ohere ịhụ.[105] Oke osimiri Naịl dugara n'ịbawanye oke mbibi, n'ihi na ọ dị mkpa ka e jiri osisi rụọ azụ̀ ahụ.[106]

Ọdọ mmiri satịlaịtị nke Ọdọ Mmiri Kyoga nwere ike ịdị mkpa maka mbọ nchekwa n'ọdịnihu, n'ihi na ha nwere ma ọ dịkarịa ala ụdị haplochromine iri isii, nakwa na perch Naịl abatabeghị n'ime ha.[88]

Ihu Igwe na Mgbanwe Ihu Igwe

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Map of northeast Africa, dividing the land into various regions, each with climate indicators.
Maapụ a na-egosi mpaghara Köppen climate classification dị na Osimiri Naịl na mpaghara gbara ya gburugburu. Akụkụ ugwu nke ala mmiri ahụ bụ ọzara na-ekpo ọkụ ma kpọọ nkụ (Bwh) ebe ndịda dị jụụ ma dị mmiri mmiri karịa (mpaghara C na A).[107]

A na-ahụ ihu igwe nke Osimiri Naịl site na oke ala, na-agbanwe site na oke akọrọ n'ebe ugwu gaa na mmiri mmiri gaa na ndịda.[108] Enwere ike kewaa ala mmiri ahụ ụzọ itoolu dị iche iche: mpaghara ugwu (Ijipt na Sudan) na-akpọ nkụ nke ukwuu n'afọ niile; mpaghara etiti (gụnyere Etiopia) nwere oke mmiri ozuzo siri ike n'oge ọkọchị; mpaghara ndịda (gburugburu ọdọ mmiri Victoria) nwekwara oke mmiri ozuzo abụọ n'oge opupu ihe ubi na oge mgbụsị akwụkwọ.[109] Ọtụtụ mmiri ozuzo na-ezo n'Osimiri Naịl na-ejikọta ya na oge okpomọkụ mmiri ozuzo.[110]

Ógbè Naịl na-enwe mgbanwe ihu igwe metụtara mmụba nke gas griinhouse na ikuku.[111] Some projections for the 21st century predict a temperature increase of 2 rụọ 4 °C.[111] Models of the future climate in the North Africa and Middle East region predict an increase in the frequency and severity of droughts, and increasing variability of precipitation.[112] Oke Osimiri Naịl dị oke nrọ, na njikọta nke mmụba nke oke osimiri na enweghị mmịpụta nke ihe ndị dị n'ime ala (n'ihi ihe mgbochi mmiri dị n'elu osimiri Naịl) nwere ike ime ka otu ụzọ n'ụzọ atọ nke oke ala nke Naịl Delta pụọ n'ime narị afọ na-abịa.[113]

Akụkọ ihe mere eme nke ala

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A map of northeast Africa, where various areas are shaded different colors indicating the geological ages of rocks found in each region.
Ndị ọkà mmụta ala na-eji data ala, dịka a hụrụ na maapụ a nke ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ Afrịka, iji wughachi ọdịdị ala ochie na usoro mmiri.[114]

Osimiri Naịl dị ka ọtụtụ osimiri – si n'usoro osimiri nna ochie ndị sochiri ụzọ dị iche iche. N'ime ọtụtụ nde afọ, tectonic na ike gburugburu ebe obibi gbanwere, kewaa, ma jikọta osimiri. Osimiri ahụ malitere ịdị ugbu a n'oge na-adịbeghị anya, ihe dị ka afọ 15,000 gara aga.[115] Otu echiche na-akọwa akụkọ ihe mere eme nke Naịl dị ka usoro nke oge ise evolushọn.[116][lower-alpha 39]

  • Ihe dị ka afọ nde iri abụọ gara aga (mya), akụkụ ọdịda anyanwụ nke East African Rift System malitere uplift, na-ekewa mpaghara Great Lakes nke Afrịka na mpaghara Congo. N'ihe dị ka afọ 6, osimiri Naịl nke nna ochie dị n'Ijipt bụ obere osimiri, nke malitere nso Wadi Howar nke oge a ma na-asọba n'ebe ugwu ruo n'Oké Osimiri Mediterenian. Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria adịghị, osimiri ndị dị n'ugwu Etiopia na Uganda anaghịkwa asọfe n'ebe ugwu ma ọ bụ jikọọ na Naịl Ijipt.[119]
  • Site na mmiri dị mita isii ruo ọkara (6.4 mya), e guzobere Ọdọ Mmiri Tana n'Ugwu Etiopia, e nwekwara nnukwu paleolake – Obweruka – ebe Ọdọ Mmiri Albert nke oge a na Ọdọ Mmiri Edward dị.[120] Nsogbu nnu nke Mesaịa mere n'oge a: Oké Osimiri Mediterenian kwụsịrị na Oké Osimiri Atlantic, ya mere oké osimiri ahụ gbapụrụ kpamkpam. Oké osimiri Mediterenian tọgbọ chakoo mere ka osimiri Naịl nke nna ochie gwuo nnukwu olulu mmiri n'Ijipt, nke a na-akpọ Eonile. Mmiri osimiri ahụ nke na-asọfe n'ime olulu mmiri ahụ mebiri otu ọwara mmiri dị ọtụtụ narị mita n'okpuru ọkwa oke osimiri ụwa na Aswan, na 2,400 meters (7,900 ft) n'okpuru na Cairo. Mgbe Oké Osimiri Mediterenian ejikọtara ọzọ na oke osimiri ahụ, oké osimiri ahụ jupụtaghachiri, Eonile wee ghọọ nnukwu olulu mmiri nke mechara jupụta na ájá.[121]
  • Ihe dị ka mya 2.5 maka oge mbụ mmiri Etiopia na-asọga n'ebe ugwu ma jikọọ na Naịl Ijipt ochie. Ugwu Rwenzori uplifted mere ka paleolake Obweruka malite ịgbapụta mmiri n'akụkụ ọwụwa anyanwụ (tupu, ọ gbapụta mmiri n'akụkụ ọdịda anyanwụ) wee malite ịmepụta Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria.[lower-alpha 40] Mmiri ndị mejupụtara Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria erutebeghị n'ebe ugwu ruo Sudan ma ọ bụ Ijipt.[123]
  • N'ihe dị ka mya 0.5, Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria dị ka ọdịdị ọgbara ọhụrụ ya, ala dị larịị nke ọdọ mmiri ukwu wee gbadaa n'ebe ugwu ma malite ịgbapụ mmiri n'ime Sudan mgbe ụfọdụ ma mgbanaka na Naịl nna dị ochie na Ijipt, na-eme usoro osimiri nke na-agbaso usoro nke Naịl White ọgbara ọhụrụ. Paleolakes dị n'ógbè apịtị Sudd nke oge a.[124]
  • Mgbe afọ iri na ise gachara, ọdọ mmiri ukwu nke Afrịka malitere ịdị ka ha dị ugbu a, mmiri si n'ọdọ mmiri ndị ahụ dị n'ebe ugwu ruo Sudan anaghịzi agafe agafe. Ụfọdụ paleolakes kpọrọ nkụ na South Sudan na Ijipt dị nso na Ọdọ Mmiri Toshka.[125] N'oge a, mmiri ozuzo mmiri ozuzo oge okpomọkụ gbanwere ma mụbaa nke ukwuu n'ógbè ọdọ mmiri Victoria na ọdọ mmiri Albert.[126] Oke mmiri nke Blue Nile na White Nile gbanwere nke ukwuu n'oge a, ebe oke mmiri dị elu na-eme ọtụtụ ugboro.[127] E guzobere usoro osimiri Naịl nke oge a na mmalite oge a.[128]

Akụkọ ihe mere eme mmadụ

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Akụkọ ihe mere eme tupu oge eruo

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A satellite photo of Egypt, showing mostly sandy ground, with a dark, meandering river flowing through the sand, emptying into a sea.
Osimiri Naịl (ala) na-asọfe n'ime ọzara Ijipt, nke dị mmiri mmiri karịa n'oge oge mmiri dị n'Africa.[101]

Ndị nna nna ochie nke ụdị mmadụ bi nso Osimiri Naịl. A hụrụ Australopithecus afarensis fosil Lucy ntakịrị n'akụkụ ọwụwa anyanwụ nke ókèala ala ahụ. Olduvai Gorge – ebe e si nweta Homo habilis mbụ dị n'ebe ndịda nke ala ahụ.[129] N'ime Osimiri Naịl, ebe ihe ochie Nyayanga dị n'akụkụ ọwụwa anyanwụ nke Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria nwere ngwaọrụ Oldowan dị ihe dị ka nde afọ 2.6.[130][lower-alpha 41] E nwere akụkọ na ebe obibi ụmụ mmadụ n'akụkụ osimiri Naịl dị ihe dị ka afọ 12,000 na 20,000 gara aga n'otu obodo dị nso n'obodo Qurta (Ijipt) nke oge a. Ụmụ mmadụ ndị a kpụrụ petroglyphs n'ime nkume, na-egosi aurochs, nnụnụ, hippopotamid, gazelle, hartebeest, na azụ. Ụfọdụ ndị ọkà mmụta ekwuola na ndị a, ma ọ bụ ndị ọzọ bi nso, nwere ike inwe atụrụ, ewu, ma ọ bụ ehi.[131] Sahara – nke gụnyere Ijipt na Sudan nke dị n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ dị mmiri mmiri karịa n'oge oge mmiri dị n'Africa nke dị ihe dị ka afọ 10,000 ruo 5,000 gara aga. Ọdịnala ịzụ atụrụ nke ndị ọzụzụ atụrụ malitere n'oge ahụ, mana mgbe ihu igwe kpọrọ nkụ n'ihe dị ka afọ 3,900 Tupu Oge Anyị, a manyere ndị mmadụ ịkwaga na ndagwurugwu Naịl iji dị ndụ. Nke a bụ mmalite nke Omenala Nubia na Sudan na mmepeanya Ijipt oge ochie.[101]

Mmepeanya Ijipt oge ochie

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A painting on a wall of a boat on a river, with Ancient Egyptians rowing it
Ndị Ijipt oge ochie jiri ụgbọ mmiri mee ihe nke ukwuu maka njem. Foto a sitere na Ili Pairy.[132]

Osimiri Naịl dị mkpa n'akụkụ niile nke ndụ ndị Ijipt: ọ na-enye nri site na ihe ubi ọ na-agba mmiri, ọ na-akpatakwa ọnwụ mgbe oké ọkọchị butere ọdịda ihe ubi na ụnwụ nri. Osimiri Naịl gbara ume ka sayensị na gọọmentị too: ịgba mmiri mmiri, amụma idei mmiri na ụtụ isi niile chọrọ nkà mgbakọ na mwepụ na nchịkwa ọhụrụ. Amụma ihu igwe na mbara igwe zụlitekwara dịka ihe si na mkpa ndị Ijipt nwere ịghọta osimiri ahụ na idei mmiri ya pụta.[133]

kalịnda Ijipt oge ochie dabere na usoro idei mmiri nke Naịl. E kewara afọ ahụ ụzọ atọ, nke ọ bụla nwere ọnwa anọ nke ụbọchị iri atọ nke ọ bụla. Oge ndị ahụ bụ Akhet (n'ụzọ nkịtị, 'mmiri Idei mmiri'), Peret ('ịkọ ihe'), na Shemu ('owuwe ihe ubi'). Akhet bụ oge afọ mgbe osimiri Naịl jupụtara, wee hapụ ala ọhụrụ dị mma; Peret bụ oge ịkọ ihe; Shemu bụkwa oge owuwe ihe ubi mgbe mmiri na-ezoghị.[134] Naịl metụtara asụsụ ha: ntụziaka compass dabere na onye na-eche ihu n'elu mmiri: a pụrụ iji otu okwu ahụ mee ihe maka ma elu na ndịda; okwu ọzọ maka aka ekpe na ọwụwa anyanwụ; na okwu ọzọ maka aka nri na ọdịda anyanwụ.[135] Mgbe ụfọdụ, ha na-akpọ mmiri ozuzo "Naịl dị n'eluigwe".[136]

Ijipt oge ochie nwere mpaghara abụọ: Ugwu Ijipt dị ala (Ndagwurugwu Naịl) na Ugwu Ijipt dị elu (Ndagwurugwu Naịl, ihe dị ka n'etiti Giza na cataract mbụ). Osimiri Naịl rụrụ ọrụ n'ịchọpụta ihe pụrụ iche nke mpaghara ọ bụla, n'ihi na ụzọ mmiri na-agbanwe agbanwe na Lower Egypt pụtara na ụzọ njem, a na-amanyekarị ebe obibi, na mpaghara nchịkwa ịkwaga ebe ọzọ. E nwere otu osisi pụrụ iche nke Naịl nke nọchiri anya mpaghara Ala na Elu nke ọ bụla: Papyrus na sedge, n'otu n'otu.[137]

Ókèala ndịda Ijipt oge ochie dị n'ebe mbụ e si enweta cataract n'osimiri ahụ (n'akụkụ Elephantine Island) n'ihi na ọ siri ike ịgafe oke mmiri ndị ahụ.[138] Ndị Ijipt maara ụzọ mmiri nke Naịl si aga n'elu mmiri ruo na nke isii nke cataract (nke a na-akpọ Khartoum nke oge a), mana ha amaghị ụzọ osimiri ahụ si aga (ma ọ bụ ebe o si aga) karịa nke ahụ.[139][lower-alpha 42] Osimiri Naịl dugara ndị Ijipt iwu nnukwu mgbochi mmiri mbụ a maara n'ụwa – nke a maara ugbu a dị ka Sadd el-Kafara – ihe dị ka afọ 2600 Tupu Oge nchịkwa idei mmiri.[140][lower-alpha 43]

Omenala Nubian, Etiopia, na Nilotic

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A photograph of seven stone statues of individual men, in a standing posture.
Ndị eze Kushite, nke a makwaara dị ka ndị Fero ojii, duziri Usoro Ọchịchị Ijipt nke Iri Abụọ na Ise.[141]

N'ebe ndịda nke oghere mmiri nke Naịl nke abụọ dị Nubia, ebe obibi nke ọtụtụ omenala dị n'akụkụ Naịl (nke bụ ugbu a Sudan nke oge a) nke malitere mmepe na njedebe nke oge mmiri ozuzo nke Afrịka.[142][lower-alpha 44] Omenala ndị Nubia a toro n'otu aka ahụ na mmepeanya Ijipt nke dị n'ebe ugwu, mana ha enweghị njikọ ọ bụla ruo Alaeze Ochie nke Ijipt ihe dị ka afọ 3,000 Tupu Oge Anyị.[145] Mmepe mbụ nke Nubia bụ omenala Kerma, nke dị site n'ihe dị ka 2600 TOA ruo 1500 TOA. Omenala Kerma bụ nke ndị na-azụ anụ na ndị na-azụ ehi, mana ọ gbanwere nwayọ nwayọ gaa n'ọrụ ugbo ka Sahara kpọrọ nkụ na njedebe nke oge mmiri ozuzo Africa.[142] N'ihe dị ka afọ 780 Tupu Oge Anyị, Alaeze Ukwu Kushite bilitere n'akụkụ Osimiri Naịl, gụnyere ọdọ mmiri Atbarah. Alaeze Ukwu Kush meriri ọtụtụ akụkụ Ijipt n'okpuru ọchịchị nke Black Pharaoh ya,[lower-alpha 45] onye duru alaeze ukwu ahụ site n'obodo ndị dị n'akụkụ osimiri Naịl.[141] Mgbe Iso Ụzọ Kraịst bilitere, alaeze Ndị Kraịst dị na Nubia (gụnyere Nobatia, Makuria, na Alodia) malitere n'akụkụ Osimiri Naịl.[147]

N'ógbè ebe Eritrea nke oge a na nke ugwu Etiopia bi, Alaeze Aksum toro site na narị afọ nke mbụ ruo 960 O.A. Aksum ji Oké Osimiri Uhie eme njem, mana Atbarah na Blue Nile dịkwa n'ime obodo ya.[148] Ndị Funj Sultanate (1504 ruo 1821) chịrị mpaghara nke Sudan nke oge a kpuchiri.[149] Ndị Alaeze Etiopia (1270–1974) bi n'ógbè Etiopia na Eritrea nke oge a.[148]

Osimiri Naịl bụ ebe obibi nke ndị Nilotic, otu nnukwu obodo ndị malitere nso Naịl n'ebe a na-akpọ South Sudan ugbu a, ma kwaga ndịda na ọwụwa anyanwụ gaa Uganda na Kenya nke oge a.[150] Ndị Nilotic gụnyere Ndị Dinka na Ndị Nuer, bụ́ ndị bụ agbụrụ kachasị na South Sudan; ha abụọ bụ ndị na-azụ ehi n'oge ụfọdụ, ndị na-azụ ehi n'oge ụfọdụ, ndị na-akwaga ehi ha n'oge ụfọdụ maka idei mmiri nke Naịl.[151]

Ijipt site n'oge ndị Rom ruo oge ọchịchị ndị ọchịchị

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A photograph of a river, lined with trees on both banks, and a boat docked on the side.
Muhammad Ali (onye chịrị Ijipt site na 1805 ruo 1848) wuru Ọwa Mmiri Mahmoudiah iji kwado ịgba mmiri na njem.[152]

Osimiri Naịl bụ isi ihe kpatara uto nke Alaeze Ukwu Rom, nke chịkwara Ijipt ruo ọtụtụ narị afọ. Ndị Rom si Ijipt na-ebubata nnukwu ọka, nke a kụrụ na idei mmiri Naịl.[153] Na narị afọ mbụ, eze ukwu Trajan wuru ọwa mmiri nke jikọtara Naịl na Oke Osimiri Uhie.[154] N'agbata afọ 945 na 977 OA, idei mmiri nke Naịl dị obere nke ukwuu; ọdịda ihe ubi ndị a kpatara kpatara enweghị ntụkwasị obi ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị nke mere ka Fatimid Caliphate pụta.[155][lower-alpha 46] Ndị Fatimid (narị afọ nke 10 na nke 11), Mamluk Sultanate (narị afọ nke 13 ruo nke 16), na Ottoman Egypt (narị afọ nke 16 ruo nke 19) nọgidere na-ewu ma na-elekọta ọwa mmiri dị n'Ijipt.[156] E ji ọwa mmiri mee ihe maka ọrụ ugbo, nakwa maka azụmaahịa na maka agha.[156] Ọ bụ ezie na ndị Ijipt nwere nkà n'iwu ọwa mmiri, ha arụghị ihe mgbochi mmiri ma ọ bụ ọdọ mmiri n'elu osimiri Naịl nke ọma ruo narị afọ nke 19, mgbe owu – gbara mmiri na mmiri Naịl – ghọrọ ihe ubi dị mkpa maka Ijipt.[152] E wuru ọdọ mmiri ndị mbụ a n'oge ọchịchị Muhammad Ali (onye chịrị Ijipt site na 1805 ruo 1848). E wuru obere ọdọ mmiri mbụ n'ime Osimiri Naịl na nso Cairo, ma mee ihe iji mee ka oge ihe ubi na-eto eto dịkwuo ogologo. Ali rụkwara ọwa mmiri gụnyere Ọwa mmiri Mahmoudiah, nke malitere na 1818.[152] Ismail Pasha (Onyeisi oche nke Ijipt, 1863–1879) wuru Ọwa Ibrahimiya – nke e mechara na 1873 – nke na-aga n'akụkụ Osimiri Naịl ma na-eji ya eme igba mmiri.[157]

Ịchọ ebe Naịl si bịa

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An engraved map of central Africa. The map shows numerous towns and rivers through the continent. The map contains some geographic inaccuracies, indicating it is old and prepared before the modern era.
Maapụ Europe nke etiti Afrịka nke narị afọ nke iri na asaa. A na-akpọ Naịl Nilus fl. Ọtụtụ ihe dị na maapụ ahụ bụ echiche efu ma ọ bụ ihe efu.[158][lower-alpha 47]

Kemgbe oge ndị Gris oge ochie, ndị Yuropu na-achọ ịmata ebe Naịl si apụta na ebe idei mmiri ya si apụta.[159] Herodotus bụ onye Gris na-akọ akụkọ ihe mere eme nke gara Ijipt n'afọ 457 Tupu Oge Anyị wee gaa Aswan n'elu Osimiri Naịl; ọ nwere mgbagwoju anya maka idei mmiri nke Naịl – nke malitere n'oge ọkọchị mgbe mmiri ezoghị na Ijipt.[127] Ndị ọkà mmụta ala na Yuropu, Afrịka, na Arebia – malitere na Eratosthenes na narị afọ nke abụọ Tupu Oge Anyị – kwuru na ebe o si bịa bụ nchịkọta ọdọ mmiri dị n'etiti Afrịka.[160] Ọtụtụ maapụ Afrịka mbụ gosiri na Osimiri Naịl sitere n'ọdọ mmiri buru ibu dị n'ime ime Afrịka mana ruo afọ 1600, ha niile bụ echiche efu, ha adabereghịkwa na ihe ọmụma sayensị siri ike.[161][lower-alpha 48]

E guzobere isi iyi nke Blue Nile n'ihi mmasị ndị Portugal nwere na Etiopia: Jesuit missionaries Pedro Páez gara leta isi iyi – Gish Abay – na mmalite narị afọ nke 17, ma dee História da Ethiópia na-akọwa oge ọ nọrọ na Etiopia. Akụkọ ya enweghị ụbọchị kpọmkwem ọ gara Gish Abay. Ndị nchọpụta Yuropu mechara rute Etiopia na narị afọ nke 17 na nke 18 – gụnyere Jerónimo Lobo na James Bruce – kpọsara ihe Páez dere ma mee atụmatụ na ọ gara ebe ahụ n'agbata afọ 1613 na 1618.[163]

Isi iyi nke Naịl Ọcha siri ike ịchọta karịa nke Naịl Blue. E guzobere Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria n'ezie dị ka isi iyi nke Naịl Ọcha ruo afọ 260 mgbe a chọpụtara na ọ bụ isi iyi nke Naịl Blue.[164] Na 1858, John Hanning Speke bụ onye Europe mbụ hụrụ Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria, o mechara hụ osimiri na-asọpụta site n'akụkụ ugwu nke ọdọ mmiri ahụ nke o chere na ọ bụ Naịl. O soghị osimiri ahụ site n'Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria ruo Sudan, nke mere ka ụfọdụ ndị nwee obi abụọ banyere nkwubi okwu ya na ọ bụ Naịl ka ọdọ mmiri ahụ si apụta.[165]

Mgbalị iji chọpụta kpọmkwem ebe mmiri Naịl Ọcha dị kpọmkwem malitere na mmalite narị afọ nke 20 mgbe Richard Kandt kwuru na ebe mmiri ahụ bụ akụkụ nke Osimiri Kagera n'ime Ọhịa Nyungwe – Kagera na-abanye n'ime Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria.[2] E mere ka ebe ebe ahụ si pụta dịkwuo mma na 1969 mgbe otu ndị nchọpụta si Mahadum Waseda chọpụtara otu mpaghara Kagera kpọmkwem.[2] Na afọ 2006, otu ndị njem ahụ chọtara ebe ahụ n'afọ 1969 ọzọ, wee tinye nnukwu ihe nrịbama n'elu osisi dị nso.[2] Na 2009, ndị ọkà mmụta jiri onyonyo satịlaịtị mee ka ebe isi iyi ahụ dị dịkwuo mma, wee tinye ya n'ebe dị kilomita ole na ole site na isi iyi 1969/2006.[2][lower-alpha 1]

Ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị mmiri n'oge a

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Osimiri Naịl gafere ọtụtụ ókèala mba ụwa, na-eme ka ọ bụrụ osimiri na-agafe ókèala ma bụrụ isiokwu nke esemokwu ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị.[166]

Oge ọchịchị obodo

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Mgbe Akụkọ ihe mere eme nke Ijipt n'okpuru ọchịchị ndị Britain na-achị Ijipt malitere na 1882,[lower-alpha 49] ha malitere ọrụ mmiri ndị ọzọ iji mee ka mmepụta owu dịkwuo mma ma kwado ọnụ ọgụgụ ndị Ijipt na-amụba ngwa ngwa.[168][lower-alpha 50] E wuru nnukwu mgbochi mmiri mbụ n'elu Osimiri Naịl Aswan Low Dam, nke e mechara na 1902. E buliri elu ya ugboro abụọ: na 1912 na 1933.[169] E wuru ọdọ mmiri ndị ọzọ n'okpuru ọchịchị ndị ọchịchị aka ike gụnyere Ọdọ Mmiri Sennar, nke e wuru n'etiti 1914 na 1925 n'elu Osimiri Blue Nile na Sudan, na Ọdọ Mmiri Jebel Aulia, nke e mechara na 1937 n'akụkụ Khartoum.[170] Isi ihe mere e ji rụọ dam ndị e wuru n'ime narị afọ nke 20 bụ ịkwado ịgba mmiri; mmepụta ike mmiri bụ naanị ihe mgbaru ọsọ nke abụọ.[171]

Na 1929, e nwere nkwekọrịta n'etiti Ijipt na Sudan Anglo-Egypt.[172] Nkwekọrịta ahụ kwuru na mba Ijipt na mba Sudan na-eji mita kubik ijeri iri anọ na asatọ na anọ nke mmiri Naịl kwa afọ, n'otu n'otu. Ijipt nwere ikike inyocha otú mmiri si aga na mba ndị dị n'elu osimiri, ịrụ ọrụ ndị metụtara osimiri na-enweghị nkwenye nke mba ndị dị n'elu osimiri, na ịgbachi nkịtị maka ọrụ owuwu ọ bụla ga-emetụta Ijipt nke ukwuu.[173]

Oge mgbe ọchịchị gasịrị

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A huge rock sculpture of four kings sitting on thrones.
E bufere Abu Simbel n'ala dị elu mgbe e wuru Aswan High Dam ma jupụta ebe mbụ ha dị.[174]

Ijipt na Sudan nwere onwe ha n'aka Briten n'etiti afọ 1950.[175][lower-alpha 50] N'afọ 1959, Ijipt na Sudan gbanwere nkwekọrịta nkewa mmiri nke afọ 1929. Nkwekọrịta ọhụrụ ahụ kewara mmiri ahụ ka Ijipt na Sudan kewaa na ijeri cubic mita 55.5 na ijeri cubic mita 18.5 n'otu n'otu.[177] E wepụrụ mba ndị dị n'elu mmiri dị n'ime Osimiri Naịl na nkwekọrịta 1959 nke gụnyere Etiopia, nke bụ isi iyi nke ihe karịrị ụzọ abụọ n'ụzọ atọ nke mmiri Naịl.[178]

Nkwekọrịta nke afọ 1959 gụnyere usoro ndị kwere ka Ijipt na Sudan wuo mgbochi mmiri, nke ha mere: Ijipt wuru Aswan High Dam (emechara 1970); Sudan wuru Khashm el-Girba Dam (1964), Roseires Dam (1966), Merowe Dam (2009), na Upper Atbara na Setit Dam Complex (2017).[178][lower-alpha 51]

N'afọ 1960, Ijipt malitere iwu Ọdọ Mmiri Aswan nke na-echekwa mmiri Naịl ruo ihe dị ka afọ abụọ.[180] Akwa mmiri ahụ gbanwere akụkụ ala nke osimiri Naịl (site na akwa mmiri ahụ ruo n'oké osimiri) ka ọ bụrụ nnukwu ọwa mmiri.[181] Ọdọ mmiri ahụ nwere mmetụta dị mma: enwere ọtụtụ mmiri maka ịgba mmiri, ike mmiri enyekwala ọkụ eletrik karịa maka mmepụta ihe ndị Ijipt. Mmetụta ọjọọ nke ọdọ mmiri ahụ gụnyere adịghị mma mmiri, mbelata nke ala ọmụmụ n'ihi enweghị ájá ọhụrụ nke idei mmiri na-etinye, mmụba nnu ala, schistosomiasis, mfu ebe obibi maka osisi na anụmanụ ndị bi n'ógbè ahụ, na mgbasa nke ndị Nubia.[182]

Aswan High Dam jupụtara mmiri idei n'ọtụtụ ebe dị na Ndagwurugwu Naịl, ọ gaarakwa emebi ọtụtụ ihe ncheta akụkọ ihe mere eme dị mkpa. mgbasa Ozi Mba Nile iji zọpụta ụfọdụ ihe ncheta ka mmiri ghara ijupụta n'ime mmiri nke ọdọ mmiri ọhụrụ zọpụtara ụfọdụ ihe ncheta nke ọma, gụnyere Temple Abu Simbel.[174] Ọdọ Mmiri Aswan nke dị elu manyere ịkwaga ọtụtụ ndị Nubia bi na ndagwurugwu ahụ nke mmiri ọhụrụ ahụ kpuchiri. A chụpụrụ ndị Nubia n'ala nna nna ha, a manyekwara ọtụtụ n'ime ha ịkwaga n'obodo ukwu dị iche iche dị n'Ijipt na Sudan.[183]

Esemokwu na mkparịta ụka na ngwụcha narị afọ nke 20

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Oke mmiri nke Naịl dị n'elu mmiri (n'aka ekpe, na eserese a), nke na-enye ohere nke ukwuu maka mmepụta ike mmiri.[184]

N'ime narị afọ nke 20 niile, e nwere enweghị nguzozi n'ike ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị n'ime Osimiri Naịl: Ijipt na Sudan n'ebe ugwu nwere ike karịa mba iri ndị ọzọ dị na ndịda.[185] Mgbe Ijipt na Sudan mechara nkwekọrịta nke afọ 1959, ọtụtụ mba ndị dị n'elu mmiri (gụnyere Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, na Etiopia) malitere ikwu okwu megide usoro nkwekọrịta ahụ, ma rụrịta ụka na ha ejighị nkwekọrịta ahụ n'aka n'ihi na ha abụghị ndị so na ya.[186] Arụmụka nke mba ndị dị n'elu mmiri bụ na ọdọ mmiri ndị Ijipt na Sudan wuru chebere mba abụọ ahụ pụọ na ụkọ mmiri ozuzo, ụnwụ nri, na idei mmiri, mana mba ndị dị n'elu mmiri dịka Etiopia ka nọ n'okpuru oké ọkọchị na ụnwụ nri.[187][lower-alpha 52] Dịka ọmụmaatụ, Ọdọ Mmiri Aswan High Dam na-emepụta ihe dị ka ijeri kilowatt iri kwa afọ; ma nye ndị ọrụ ugbo Ijipt ohere ịkọ ihe ubi ugboro atọ kwa afọ, ma e jiri ya tụnyere otu owuwe ihe ubi tupu ọwa mmiri ahụ.[189] Ndị ndu Ijipt na-ekwukarị na ha dị njikere iji ndị agha chebe ikike ha dịka nkwekọrịta nke afọ 1959 si dị.[190]

Na ngwụcha narị afọ nke 20, mba Afrịka sonyere n'ọtụtụ mgbalị iji guzobe amụma nkekọrịta mmiri – gụnyere Undugu Commission (na-arụ ọrụ site na 1983 ruo 1993) na TECCONILE (na-arụ ọrụ site na 1993 ruo 1998) – mana ha enweghị ihe ịga nke ọma n'ịmepụta nkwekọrịta ogologo oge.[191] Na 1999, itoolu n'ime iri [lower-alpha 53] mba ndị dị na Naịl  – Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania na Uganda – guzobere Mmepe Naịl Basin iji kwalite mkparịta ụka udo gbasara okwu ndị metụtara Naịl Basin.[193]

Mgbanwe ike gaa mba ndị dị n'elu mmiri

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A photograph of large concrete dam and the reservoir it creates. The photo is taken from an aerial viewpoint, looking down from above. Large plumes of white water spray over a spillway.
Dam Mmiri Renaissance nke Etiopia, nke e mechara n'afọ 2025, na-emepụta ihe karịrị gigawatts ise.[194]

Ná mmalite narị afọ nke 21, ike gbanwere gaa na mba ndị dị n'elu mmiri ka ha malitere iwu ọdọ mmiri na-enweghị nkwenye nke Ijipt ma ọ bụ Sudan.[185] Na afọ 2008, Etiopia wuru Mmiri Tekezé n'achọghị ikike n'aka Ijipt ma ọ bụ Sudan.[195] Na 2010, mba ise dị n'elu  – Uganda, Etiopia, Rwanda, Tanzania, na Kenya[lower-alpha 54] – binyere aka na nkwekọrịta ọhụrụ  – Agreement Conoperative Framework Agreement – nke bu n'obi ikenye mmiri n'ụzọ ziri ezi maka mba ndị dị n'elu mmiri. Ihe kpaliri Kenya ịbịanye aka na nkwekọrịta ahụ bụ na ha nwere atụmatụ ịpụpụta mmiri site n'Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria maka ịgba mmiri. Egypt na Sudan megidere nkwekọrịta nke afọ 2010.[197] Na 2011, [[2011 ntuli aka nnwere onwe nke South Sudan|South Sudan ghọrọ mba nke iri na otu n'ime Osimiri Naịl. N'esemokwu mmiri ndị sochirinụ, South Sudan jikọrọ aka na mba ndị dị n'elu mmiri kama iso Sudan.[31]

Na 2011, Etiopia kwupụtara atụmatụ iwu nnukwu mgbochi mmiri na Blue Nile dị nso na ókèala ya na Sudan. E mechara kpọọ ọdọ mmiri ahụ Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD).[198] Etiopia lere GERD anya dị ka ihe dị mkpa maka ọdịnihu mba ahụ, n'ihi na ike ọkụ eletrik nke ọdọ mmiri ahụ na-emepụta ga-eme ka o nwee ike ime ka ndụ ndị bi na ya dịkwuo mma nke ukwuu. Ijipt nwere nchegbu na ọdọ mmiri ahụ ga-etinye mmiri n'ihe ubi ya n'ihe ize ndụ n'ihi na Ijipt na-eji ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ mmiri osimiri niile na-abata n'obodo ya, ma ọ na-echegbu onwe ya na mmiri ọhụrụ ahụ ga-ebute ụkọ mmiri. Sudan nwere nchegbu maka nchekwa na mmiri.[199] Mgbe a mara ọkwa na e nwere ihe mgbochi mmiri ahụ, onyeisiala Ijipt Mohamed Morsi kwuru na mwakpo ndị agha megide Etiopia bụ nhọrọ,[198] Sudan na Ijipt mekwara ọtụtụ mmega agha nkwonkwo.[200]

E mere ọtụtụ mkparịta ụka n'etiti Etiopia, Sudan, na Ijipt mgbe a na-arụ akwa mmiri ahụ ma na-ejupụta ebe a na-edebe mmiri ahụ.[201] Na 2015, mba ndị ahụ bịanyere aka na "Nkwupụta nke Ụkpụrụ" nke nwere nkwekọrịta dị elu gbasara ojiji mmiri na usoro ijupụta ihe dị n'ime ọdọ mmiri.[202][lower-alpha 55] Na 2019, mba Amerịka kwadoro mkparịta ụka n'etiti mba ndị a.[202] Na 2020, African Union malitere ịkwado mkparịta ụka.[203] N'afọ ahụ, Ijipt rịọrọ Kọmitii Nchebe Mba Ndị Dị n'Otu ka ha tinye aka, mana ha jụrụ ime otú ahụ.[204] N'afọ 2021 na 2022, UAE kwadoro mkparịta ụka ahụ.[205] E mechara iwu ụlọ nke GERD dam n'afọ 2020, ebe nchekwa mmiri ahụ jupụtakwara na 2025, ọtụtụ ihe ndị na-enye ọkụ eletrik na-emepụta ọkụ eletrik.[206]

Akụnụba

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Ọrụ Ugbo

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An aerial photograph of a yellow sandy desert to the west of the Nile. Over forty green circles are visible, where irrigation water has been used to grow crops.
Ihe ubi ndị a dị n'Ijipt (n'akụkụ Ọdọ Mmiri Toshka) bụ ihe si na usoro ịgba mmiri nke na-amịpụta mmiri Naịl site na Lake Nasser pụta.[207]

E nwere nnukwu ọdịiche dị n'ọrụ ugbo n'etiti mba ndị dị n'ebe ugwu nke Osimiri Naịl (Ijipt, Sudan, na South Sudan) na mba ndị dị n'ebe ndịda (Uganda, Etiopia, wdg).[208] Ugwu bụ ọzara, mana ndịda na-enweta mmiri ozuzo dị ukwuu; ihe ọkụkụ dị n'ebe ugwu na-adaberekarị na ịgba mmiri, ebe ndịda na-adabere na mmiri ozuzo echekwara n'ime ala (mmiri ala); ihe ubi na-amịpụta nke ọma n'ebe ugwu (n'ihi iji fatịlaịza na ọgwụ nje eme ihe nke ọma) karịa na ndịda; ebe ugwu nwere nnukwu akụrụngwa ịgba mmiri (odo mmiri dam, ọwa mmiri, wdg) nke amụma gọọmentị na isi mmalite ego mba ụwa na-akwado.[208] Mmiri ala e ji eme ihe ubi kwa afọ na ndịda bụ 229km3, nke karịrị okpukpu abụọ nke mmiri Naịl kwa afọ (ihe dị ka 100km3).[209] Ihe ubi na ndịda na-enwe mmetụta ọjọọ site n'ebe dị anya site n'ahịa; n'adịghị ka ugwu, ebe ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ ugbo niile dị n'obere warara n'akụkụ osimiri nwere ohere njem zuru oke.[210]

Enweghị mmiri ozuzo na mmiri dị n'okpuru ala mere ka Ijipt dabere na Naịl maka ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ mkpa mmiri niile ọ chọrọ.[211] Ihe ọkụkụ ndị a na-akọ n'Ijipt gụnyere owu, ọka wit, ọka, osikapa, ọka wit, na agwa fava.[211] E nwere oge abụọ a na-akọ ihe ubi n'Ijipt: oge okpomọkụ (owu) na oge oyi (ọka na akwụkwọ nri).[212] Kemgbe afọ 1950, Ijipt ejirila usoro ọrụ ugbo ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe (gụnyere iji fatịlaịza na ọgwụ nje eme ihe nke ukwuu) mee ka ihe ọkụkụ na-eto nke ọma.[213] Ala Ijipt bụ ọzara 94% na 3% ala a na-akọ ihe ubi.[212] Ọtụtụ n'ime ala ubi Ijipt dị na Naịl Delta, ebe ndị ọzọ fọdụrụ dị n'akụkụ Osimiri Naịl.[214]

Ihe ọkụkụ ndị bụ́ isi na Sudan bụ ahụekere, owu, sesame, okpete, na ọka. Ihe ndị ọzọ a kụrụ n'ubi gụnyere millet, wit, ọka, na ọka bali.[215] Ihe ubi Sudan na-enweta mmiri sitere na Blue Nile na White Nile, nke ọtụtụ dam dị iche iche gụnyere Sennar Dam na Khashm el-Girba Dam na-akwado.[215] Ọtụtụ n'ime ala a na-agba mmiri dị n'ime Usoro Gezira, ọrụ ịgba mmiri sara mbara malitere na 1920s.[216]

Ịkụ azụ

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A grey fish, viewed from the side. Rocks and blue water are in the background.
E webatara Nịl perch n'Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria n'afọ 1950 iji mepụta ebe a na-akụ azụ ọhụrụ..[105]

Naịl na ọdọ mmiri ndị metụtara ya abụrụla ebe dị mkpa maka ndị bi nso mmiri kemgbe oge ochie.[217] N'afọ 2000, Osimiri Naịl na-emepụta ihe dị ka tọn azụ nde 1.4 kwa afọ, nke karịrị ọkara nke mmiri ọhụrụ niile sitere na kọntinent Afrịka dum (ton nde 2.2).[218] Naanị Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria – Ọdọ mmiri kachasị ukwuu n'Africa – nyere otu nde tọn.[219] Mkpụrụ nke ọdọ mmiri nke Osimiri Naịl karịrị nke azụ̀ e jidere n'osimiri ya.[217] Mmiri niile dị na Osimiri Naịl – ma e wezụga Sudd – na-egosi ihe akaebe nke ịkụ azụ gabiga ókè.[220]

N'afọ 1950, e webatara Naịl perch na Naịl tilapia n'ime Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria iji gbanwee mmepụta azụ̀ ndị dị n'ọdọ mmiri ahụ ka ha ghara ịmịpụta nke ọma; mgbalị ahụ gara nke ọma, mana o butere mbelata n'ọnụọgụgụ ụdị azụ̀ dị n'ọdọ mmiri ahụ.[221] Ugbu a, ọtụtụ azụ̀ a na-ejide n'Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria bụ Nile perch na Silver cyprinid (Lake Victoria sardine).[217] A na-ebuga ụfọdụ azụ̀ – karịsịa Nịl perch – karịsịa na Yuropu, kama iri ha n'obodo.[171] A na-akọ azụ n'akụkụ ụfọdụ nke ọdọ mmiri ahụ.[222]

Ike mmiri

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
A map of northeast Africa. The Nile is shown as a blue line. Along the Nile, locations of about ten hydropower stations are indicated.
Ụfọdụ ọdụ ọkụ mmiri dị n'akụkụ osimiri Naịl. "GERD" bụ Dam Ukwu nke Renaissance nke Etiopia.

Osimiri Naịl na mmiri ndị dị n'akụkụ ya na-enye ike site n'ọtụtụ ọdụ hydropower, bụ́ ndị nwere ikike imepụta ihe karịrị ike eletrik iri gigawatts (GW).[lower-alpha 56] Tupu afọ 2000, e nwere obere ọdọ mmiri ole na ole n'elu osimiri Naịl, mana mgbe nke ahụ gasịrị, gọọmentị mere ka ọsọ ọrụ owuwu mmiri dịkwuo elu.[223] E depụtara ebe ndị nwere ike mmiri nwere ike ike karịrị 100 MW n'okpuru tebụl dị n'okpuru.[lower-alpha 57]

Major hydropower stations in the Nile Basin[lower-alpha 58]
Hydropower
station		 Nearby
landmark		 Year
completed		 Power
(MW, in 2025)		 Tributary
Aswan Low Dam Templeeti:Operational1902, 1912, 1933, 1985550[224]Main Nile
Aswan High Dam Templeeti:Operational19702,100[43]Main Nile
Merowe Dam Templeeti:WinDL20091,250[225]Main Nile
Upper Atbara and Setit Templeeti:WinDL2017320[226]Atbarah and Tekezé
Roseires Dam Templeeti:WinDL1966, 2013280[227]Blue Nile
Tana Beles Templeeti:Partial2010460[228]Beles River, Blue Nile
Tekezé Dam Templeeti:Partial2009300[228]Tekezé, Atbarah
Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam Templeeti:Partial20205,150[194]Blue Nile
Fincha Templeeti:Partial1973134[228]Blue Nile (Chomen Lake)
Karuma Karuma Falls, Uganda 2024600[229]Victoria Nile
Isimba Kamuli District, Uganda2019183[230]Victoria Nile
Bujagali Bujagali Falls, Uganda2012250[231]Victoria Nile
Kiira Kimaka, Uganda2003200[232]Victoria Nile
Nalubaale Jinja, Uganda1954180[233]Victoria Nile

Ụgbọ njem

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
A cargo boat, empty, in a wide river
A na-eji ụgbọ mmiri  – dị ka nke a dị nso na Luxor, Ijipt – ebu ibu n'osimiri ahụ.

Osimiri Naịl nwere oke ala dị larịị n'ebe ugwu ma e jiri ya tụnyere mpaghara ndịda ugwu  – ya mere mba ndị dị n'ebe ugwu (Ijipt, Sudan, na South Sudan) nwere oke mmiri ndị a na-agagharị agagharị karịa.[184] N'Ijipt, osimiri ahụ enweghị nnukwu ihe mgbochi n'etiti delta na cataract mbụ dị na Aswan, n'ihi ya, ejirila akụkụ ahụ mee ihe nke ukwuu maka njem.[234] A pụrụ iji usoro ahụ mee ihe ọbụna tupu ụgbọ mmiri steamship abịa, n'ihi na mmiri nwere ike ibu ụgbọ mmiri n'ala ala, ifufe si n'ebe ugwu na-enyekwa aka mgbe ụgbọ mmiri na-aga n'elu mmiri.[235] A naghị aga Blue Nile n'ọtụtụ ebe. Kama osimiri ahụ, ndị Etiopia na ndị ọchịchị Itali jiri ụzọ dị n'elu ala  – nke Strada Imperiale – maka njem ụgbọ mmiri site na ugwu ruo ndịda na Etiopia.[236] N'oge na-adịbeghị anya na 1903, ndị nchọpụta ka nọ na-eme nnyocha banyere Blue Nile iji hụ ma enwere ike iji ya mee njem n'etiti Etiopia na Sudan, mana ha emeghị nke ọma.[237]

N'Ijipt oge ochie, osimiri bụ ụzọ isi ebuga ihe, e wuru ọtụtụ ụgbọ mmiri dị iche iche ma nke bara uru ma nke emume.[132] Ụgbọ mmiri ndị Ijipt siri ike nke ukwuu iji buru nnukwu obelisks na nkume maka iwu pyramid na ụlọ nsọ.[238][lower-alpha 59] N'oge a, a ka na-eji osimiri eme njem, ọkachasị n'Ijipt, ebe o nwere ụzọ mmiri anọ a na-eji aga ụgbọ mmiri nke dabara adaba maka nnukwu ụgbọ mmiri: abụọ dị na delta, otu dị n'etiti delta na Aswan High Dam, na otu dị n'Ọdọ Mmiri Nasser. Ijipt na-ebuga ihe ruru nde tọn narị ise nke ibu n'osimiri kwa afọ, nke bụ naanị ihe dị ka pasentị 0.8 nke mbugharị ibu niile nke Ijipt (ọtụtụ n'ime ibu ndị a na-ebu site n'okporo ụzọ ma ọ bụ ụgbọ okporo ígwè).[lower-alpha 60] Cargo transported on the river includes cement, limestone, coal, petroleum products, and phosphates.[241]

Site n'elu ọdọ mmiri Nasser, Naịl na mmiri ndị dị n'akụkụ ya nwere mmiri mmiri, cataracts, rapid, na ihe mgbochi mmiri ndị na-eme ka njem dị anya sie ike.[242] Ihe mgbochi ọzọ na-egbochi njem ụgbọ mmiri bụ Sudd, nnukwu ala mmiri jupụtara na mmiri dị n'akụkụ Osimiri Ọcha na South Sudan. A malitere atụmatụ iwu ọwa mmiri site na apịtị a kpọrọ Ọwa mmiri Jonglei – na mmalite narị afọ nke 20 iji nye mmiri ka ukwuu iji kụọ owu na Ijipt. A malitere iwu ụlọ ahụ obere oge n'afọ 1978, mana n'oge na-adịghị anya, a kwụsịrị ọrụ ahụ.[243]

Njem nlegharị anya na ntụrụndụ

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
A boat on river. In the boat are about 20 people.
Akụkụ dị iche iche nke osimiri ahụ na-adọta ndị njem nleta. Ụgbọ mmiri a na-ekiri Murchison Falls n'elu Osimiri Naịl Ọcha, n'etiti Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria na Ọdọ Mmiri Albert.

Karịsịa osimiri Naịl, nke dị n'Ijipt, abụrụla otu n'ime ebe ndị njem nleta kacha ewu ewu n'ụwa kemgbe ọtụtụ puku afọ, ọ bụkwa isiokwu nke ọtụtụ akwụkwọ njem.[244][lower-alpha 61] Otu n'ime ebe ndị njem nleta kacha aga n'akụkụ osimiri Naịl bụ Giza pyramid complex – about 9 kilometers (5.6 mi) site na usoro ọgbara ọhụrụ nke Naịl dị na Cairo – nke bụ ebe ndị njem nleta kemgbe oge ndị Gris.[245][lower-alpha 59]

Oke osimiri Naịl dị n'etiti Cairo na Aswan abụrụla ebe ndị njem nleta na-aga kemgbe: n'oge emume gbasara mmeghe nke Suez Canal na 1870, otu ìgwè ndị njem nleta buru ụgbọ mmiri gaa n'akụkụ osimiri ahụ wee gaa leta Luxor, Dendera, Saqqara, Edfu, na Philae.[244] Otu n'ime ụlọ ọrụ njem mbụ n'ụwa, Thomas Cook & Son, malitere inye njem nlegharị anya n'osimiri ahụ na 1870 mgbe e meghere Ọwa Mmiri Suez, ma malite njem ụgbọ mmiri steam mgbe niile n'elu osimiri Naịl n'afọ 1875.[246] Kemgbe e wuru Aswan High Dam n'afọ 1970, ọdọ mmiri ahụ aghọọla ebe ndị njem nleta na-aga, tinyere ụlọ nsọ ndị dị nso e bufere n'oge a na-ewu ya ka ha ghara ịdaba n'ime mmiri.[247] Ọdọ mmiri Aswan High Dam bakwaara ụlọ ọrụ njem ụgbọ mmiri uru n'ihi na osimiri site na Aswan ruo na delta ahụ ghọrọ nke a na-eji agagharị n'enweghị nsogbu n'afọ niile.[248]

Osimiri Naịl bụ ebe obibi nke ọtụtụ ogige ntụrụndụ na ebe nchekwa ihe okike, gụnyere Murchison Falls National Park nke Uganda,[249] na Salouga na Ghazal Chekwara nke Ijipt.[250] Mmiri Mmiri Bujagali so n'ebe ndị a ma ama n'Africa, mana ha aghọọla ndị mmiri kpuchiri n'ihi owuwu nke Ọdụ Ike Bujagali.[251]

Na omenala

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Nka na akwụkwọ

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

A na-ahụkarị osimiri ahụ na nka Ijipt oge ochie, ọtụtụ mgbe, e nwere ndị eze na-akụ azụ̀ ma ọ bụ na-akụ azụ̀ hippopotamuse.[253] A na-akpọ Ihe osise ala nke gosipụtara osimiri Naịl – ma ọ bụ kpọmkwem ma ọ bụ n'ụzọ ihe atụ – ala nilotic. A na-ahụ ala ndị dị n'ebe ugwu Nilotic site n'osimiri nke gosipụtara ihe ọkụkụ na anụmanụ, ọtụtụ n'ime ha bụ ndị Ijipt. Ihe ndị a na-ahụkarị gụnyere papyrus, nkwụ, azụ̀ na nnụnụ mmiri, na  – nwamba, enwe, na agụ iyi.[253]

A na-egosikwa ala Nilotic n'ihe osise sitere na Gris oge ochie na Rom oge ochie.[255] Ihe osise ndị Rom nke oge ochie na-elekwasị anya n'anụmanụ ndị na-eme ihe ike, nke na-agụnyekarị agụ iyi na hippopotamuses.[255] Ihe ngosi pụrụ iche nke Naịl n'ihe osise bụ Personification of the River Nile, ihe ọkpụkpụ mabụl dị ukwuu sitere na c. narị afọ nke abụọ OA Rome – ugbua dị na Vatican Museum.[lower-alpha 63] A na-egosi Naịl dị ka nwoke na-ehulata n'elu ihe e ji ọka wit mee. N'akụkụ ya bụ sphinx – nke na-anọchite anya Ijipt – na ụmụ iri na isii nke na-ezo aka na cubit iri na isii (ogologo kacha mma nke idei mmiri kwa afọ). E nwere agụ iyi, nkịta ndị a na-akpọ pygmi, na ehi mmiri.[254]

A na-ahụ Osimiri Naịl n'ihe osise ndị nwere nnukwu osimiri anọ n'ụwa: Osimiri Naịl (Afrịka), Danube (Europe), Ganges (Asia), na Río de la Plata (America). Ihe atụ gụnyere eserese ahụ The Four Rivers of Paradise site n'aka Peter Paul Rubens (1615)[257] na isi iyi ahụ dị na Rom Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi emebere ya site n'aka Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1651).[258] N'isi iyi Bernini, a na-egosi Naịl dị ka nwoke kpuchiri isi ya n'ákwà, nke na-anọchite anya ihe omimi nke isi iyi Naịl a na-amaghị ama.[259]

Ndị Ijipt oge ochie dere ma bụọ Abụ a maka Naịl; o mere emume maka idei mmiri nke Naịl na uru o wetara n'ọdịbendị Ijipt.[260] Isma'il Pasha nyere Giuseppe Verdi ọrụ ide opera iji mee emume mmeghe nke Suez Canal. E mere opera a, Aida, n'ụlọ ọrụ ihe nkiri Royal Opera nke e wuru ọhụrụ Egyptian Royal Opera House n'afọ 1871. E tinyere ihe nkiri opera nke atọ n'akụkụ osimiri Naịl.[261] Kemgbe mmalite nke ọrụ nke Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, ndị egwu Etiopia emepụtala egwu ndị na-eme emume ma na-eto Naịl na dam.[262]

William Shakespeare nwere agwa Marc Antony na-akọwa idei mmiri Naịl n'egwuregwu ahụ Antony and Cleopatra: "Otu a ka ha si eme, nna m ukwu: ha na-ewere mmiri nke Naịl site na ihe atụ ụfọdụ na pyramid; ha maara, Site n'ịdị elu, ala, ma ọ bụ nke dị ala, ma ọ bụrụ na ụkọ ma ọ bụ foison na-eso: ka Nilus na-eto nke ọma, ka o kwere nkwa karịa: ka ọ na-agbọpụta, onye na-agha mkpụrụ na-agbasasị ọka ya n'elu ala ahịhịa na mmiri ozuzo, Ọ na-abịakwa n'oge owuwe ihe ubi." [263][lower-alpha 64]

Agatha Christie dere akwụkwọ akụkọ ihe omimi nke afọ 1937 a ma ama Death on the Nile, gbasara ogbugbu n'ụgbọ mmiri dị n'Osimiri Naịl, nke kpaliri ọtụtụ mgbanwe.[264] Adrift on the Nile bụ akwụkwọ akụkọ nke onye edemede Ijipt na onye meriri Nobel Prize Naguib Mahfouz dere n'afọ 1966 gbasara otu nwa okorobịa bi n'ụgbọ mmiri dị n'akụkụ osimiri Naịl. Osimiri ahụ bụ ihe atụ maka ndụ ọ na-enweghị ike ịchịkwa, nke na-eme ka ọ gbakụta ọha mmadụ azụ.[265] Osimiri Naịl na-arụ ọrụ dị mkpa n'ọtụtụ egwuregwu vidiyo, gụnyere Civilization VI.[266]

Akụkọ ifo na okpukperechi

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
A diagram of two identical blue men, facing each other. They are holding green plants.
Chi ndị Ijipt Hapy kpatara idei mmiri Naịl kwa afọ.[267]
A detailed colorful painting, of several men and women alongside a river. A baby is in a basket.
Baịbụl Hibru nwere akụkọ gbasara ebe a napụtara nwa ọhụrụ Moses n'ime Osimiri Naịl.[268]

Cosmology nke ndị Ijipt oge ochie bụ ndị na-agbanwe agbanwe n'okike: kama ile ndụ anya dị ka ihe nwere mmalite na njedebe, a na-ele ya anya dị ka usoro na-adịgide adịgide. Echiche ndụ a na-agbanwe agbanwe sitere n'ụwa ebumpụta ụwa nke gbara ndị Ijipt gburugburu, ụzọ anyanwụ si agafe kwa ụbọchị, na idei mmiri nke Naịl kwa afọ.[269] Chi anyanwụ Ra na-agafe n'eluigwe kwa ụbọchị site n'ọwụwa anyanwụ ruo n'ọdịda anyanwụ, usoro atọ nke ụbọchị (ọwụwa anyanwụ, ehihie, na anyanwụ dara) kwekọrọ na usoro ndụ mmadụ: ọmụmụ, ndụ, na ọnwụ. N'ihi nke a, e tinyere ọtụtụ ebe ili ozu n'akụkụ ọdịda anyanwụ nke Naịl, ebe ha ga-adị nso na anyanwụ na-ada.[270][lower-alpha 65]

N'ime okpukpe Ijipt oge ochie, ọ dịghị otu chi ọ bụla mere ka osimiri Naịl bụrụ otu ụzọ ahụ chi Ra si mee ka anyanwụ bụrụ otu.[271] Chi ndị e jikọtara na osimiri ahụ gụnyere Hapy (chi nke idei mmiri kwa afọ) na Khnum (chi nke cataract mbụ), ndị jikọrọ aka mee ka idei mmiri Naịl kwa afọ nke na-eme ka ala ubi dị n'ime obodo ahụ dị mma.[267] Okpukpe ndị Ijipt tinyere isi iyi nke idei mmiri kwa afọ nke Naịl n'ebe a na-akpọ Agwaetiti Elephantine (n'oge mbụ nke cataract) ebe a kwenyere na mmiri idei mmiri ahụ na-esi n'ụwa dị n'ala mmụọ na-asọpụta.[272]

Isis bụ chi ukwu n'okpukpe Ijipt, nke jikọtara ya na Naịl nke ukwuu. Òtù nzuzo ndị dabeere na Isis gbasaa site n'Ijipt gaa Europe na narị afọ nke abụọ Tupu Oge Anyị.[273] Ihe atụ nke mmetụta nke ofufe Isis na Europe bụ Mkpụrụ mmiri nke Palestrina, dị na Rom ma dee ya na narị afọ mbụ Tupu Oge Anyị: mosaic nke mita 4 na 3 na-egosi ala Nilotic zuru ezu.[274]

Na akụkọ ifo ndị Gris, Nilus bụ chi nke Naịl, otu n'ime ọtụtụ puku ụmụ chi osimiri nke Titans Oceanus na nwunye nwanne ya nwanyị Tethys. Nilus bụ nna nke naiad Memphis, onye guzobere akụkọ ifo nke obodo Memphis.[275]

A kpọtụrụ aha Naịl n'ime Bible ọtụtụ ugboro, gụnyere akụkọ dị na Akwụkwọ Ọpụpụ gbasara nwa ọhụrụ Mozis e tinyere n'ime nkata n'ime osimiri ahụ.[268] Ụfọdụ ndị ọchịchị na-akọwa osimiri Gihon – nke a kpọtụrụ aha na Akwụkwọ Jenesis dị ka otu n'ime Osimiri Paradaịs – anọ dị ka Naịl.[268] Akụkọ dị oke mkpa nye Ndị Copt nke Ijipt dị na Akwụkwọ Matiu: ọ na-akọ akụkọ otú Joseph na Meri gbaga Ijipt wee biri n'akụkụ Osimiri Naịl ruo ọtụtụ afọ, si otú a zere Herọd.[268]


Edensibia

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ihe odide ala ala

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
  1. 1 2 3 An approximate source location was initially determined in 1969 by a group of researchers from Waseda University.[2] In 2006, a group of adventurers rediscovered that location, and placed a marker on a nearby tree (2°16′56″S 29°19′53″E / 2.28222°S 29.33139°E) which is now a minor tourist sight.[2] In 2009, academics used satellite imagery to refine the location of the source, placing it at a spring (2°19′35″S 29°21′30″E / 2.32639°S 29.35833°E) several km from the 1969/2006 location.[2]
  2. 1 2 3 The 7,088 km value for the length of the Nile is based on the Liu 2009 study. This study measured ten rivers around the world using the same methodology: the length was measured along the centerline of the river using satellite imagery. The imagery was collected during the years 1999 to 2002.[3] The lengths of all rivers vary over time, as the river changes course, sources are refined, deltas change size, or new measurement methodologies are developed.[4] The title of longest river is somewhat controversial.[5] Sources stating that the Nile is the longest river include Liu 2009; Fierro & Nyer 2007, p. 5.35; Talbot & Williams 2009, p. 39; Dumont 2009, p. 1; and Sutcliffe 2009, p. 336.
  3. 1 2 3 Discharge rate is 2,757 m3/sec (87 km3/yr) at Aswan.[7] Between Aswan and the Mediterranean, Egypt withdraws large amounts of water for irrigation, leading to lower discharge values downstream. Near Cairo, the discharge is 1,251 m3/sec (40 km3/yr).[7] The discharge from the delta into the Mediterranean Sea is only 150 m3/sec (5 km3/yr).[8] These values were measured before construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam.
  4. ↑ Other hieroglyphs for 'river' are presented in Faulkner 1964, p. 33 and Allen 2000, pp. 21, 101.
  5. ↑ Some of the cataracts have been submerged by human-made reservoirs.
  6. 1 2 The source of the Nile leads to the Rukarara River, then to the Mwogo River, which joins with the Mbirurume River to form the Nyabarongo River, which leads to the Kagera River, which drains into Lake Victoria.[34]
  7. ↑ The monument erected by Waldecker for the southernmost source is at 3°54′54.0″S 29°50′16.5″E / 3.915000°S 29.837917°E.[25]
  8. ↑ The Nile exits Lake Victoria at the town of Jinja, which hosts several tourist sights named "source of the Nile" including the Source of the Nile Bridge.[27]
  9. ↑ The source of the Blue Nile is about 75 km south of Lake Tana, at 10°58′12″N 37°11′55″E / 10.9699°N 37.1986°E.[29]
  10. ↑ In 2011, South Sudan broke away from Sudan, becoming the eleventh country in the Nile Basin.[31]
  11. ↑ Measured by area, not volume.
  12. ↑ Most precipitation in the Bahr el Ghazal basin is lost to evaporation before reaching the Nile.[40]
  13. ↑ The White Nile region, as defined here, contains only a small portion of the much larger White Nile River.
  14. ↑ The segment of the Nile between the Blue/White confluence and the Mediterranean is called the main Nile or the Saharan Nile.[44]
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 Data does not include impacts of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, completed in 2025
  16. ↑ Comparisons are using discharge of the Nile as measured at Aswan. The Nile's discharge into the Mediterranean Sea is far less.[lower-alpha 3]
  17. ↑ As the Blue Nile flow diminishes in the winter, the pent-up waters of the White Nile increase their flow past Khartoum.[62] In April and May, the White Nile supplies about 80% of the main Nile's water. Thus, the areas downstream of Khartoum receive a steady (not to say constant) flow that made irrigation possible year-round.[62]
  18. ↑ The magnitude of the annual Nile flood can vary widely from year to year. Low-flood periods can last for decades or centuries.[63]
  19. ↑ The annual flow of the river at Aswan is about 84 cubic km; and the capacity of the Aswan High Dam's reservoir is about 160 cubic km.[65]
  20. ↑ The sediment transport data was gathered over a wide range of years, spanning from 1997 to 2019. Every measurement site had unique collection time spans, specified in Lemma 2019, p. 11 and Sutcliffe 2009, p. 359.
  21. ↑ The technical definitions of source and sink used by scientists are more complicated than presented here. For clarity, the definitions of source and sink have been simplified.
  22. ↑ Sources and sinks are useful to policy makers when negotiating international water-sharing issues, such as dam construction.[72] In the 21st century, Egypt and Sudan continue to rely on extracting large amounts of water from the Nile for their existence.[73] Some experts predict that the Nile Basin may experience a water scarcity problem in the future, if population growth, agricultural needs, and climate change combine to create a scenario where the water demands exceed the amount of water available.[74]
  23. ↑ The water balance of a region can be represented by equation. There are many water balance equations.[76] A relatively simple equation is:
    In this formula, the precipitation (P) received is equal to the sum of the water losses: evaporation and transpiration (ET), groundwater recharge (), lake-filling (D), and net streamflow (Q).[76]
  24. 1 2 Hydrology Table Legend:[78]
    • Precip - Precipitation (P)
    • Evap- Evapotranspiration (ET)
    • Water Bal - Precip-ET
    • Discharge - River flow at measuring station (average of the entire year)
    • Source or Sink - Is basin a significant source or sink of water?
  25. ↑ Basin area is the Nile Basin within the country.
  26. 1 2 3 For clarity, the names of some stations have been changed to use the names of nearby major geographic features. For example, the Kilo3 station is presented here as "Mouth of the Atbarah River". The Paara station is presented here as "Murchison Falls". The "Owen Reservoir" station is presented here as "Lake Victoria outlet".
  27. ↑ The measuring stations are listed in the following table proceeding from upstream to downstream. The discharge "rate" data is an average of the entire year. The basin data in the table is for each individual basin; it is not cumulative. For example, the runoff of the second basin (Murchison Falls) does not include the runoff of the upstream basin (Lake Victoria outlet).
  28. ↑ Measured at Nalubaale dam.[81]
  29. ↑ Measured at Paara (Uganda), slightly downstream from Murchison Falls.[81]
  30. ↑ Measured at Mongalla, South Sudan, about 40 km downstream (north) of Juba.[81]
  31. ↑ Malakal is after the confluence of the White Nile and Sobat. It includes both Bahr el Ghazal and Sobat River tributaries.[81]
  32. ↑ Measured at Al Mogran before the Blue Nile confluence (includes only the White Nile).[81]
  33. ↑ Includes only Blue Nile (excludes White Nile).[81]
  34. ↑ Roughly at the midpoint of the Atbarah river.[81]
  35. ↑ Measured at the Kilo3 station, where the Atbarah joins the Nile.[81]
  36. ↑ Station is El Ekhsase, near Cairo. Basin data includes the Nile Delta, even though the delta is downstream of the station.[82]
  37. ↑ Jack Talling wrote "Two characteristics of water from the Lower Nile long attracted attention – that it was of excellent quality for drinking and irrigation, and that it seasonally contained high concentration of silt."[95]
  38. ↑ The Nile perch was introduced to Lake Victoria by Ugandan authorities in a clandestine effort to create a new fishery; but this has never been acknowledged by Uganda.[105]
  39. ↑ These five periods were proposed by Abdelsalam 2018 based on major environmental and tectonic events that impacted the Nile.[117] Other scientists hypothesize a different set of evolutionary periods; for example, geologist Rushdi Said hypothesized eight periods in their book Said 1993.[118]
  40. ↑ Obweruka existed from about 7.5 mya to 2.5 mya.[122]
  41. ↑ The Nile and Lake Victoria did not exist in their current forms during the times of Australopithecus afarensis, Homo habilis, or the Oldowan industry.[116]
  42. ↑ The ancient Egyptians were familiar with the Blue Nile's course up to Lake Tana.[139]
  43. ↑ The Sadd el-Kafara failed before it was completed, and never functioned as a dam.[140]
  44. ↑ Some authorities place the northern limit of Nubia at the First Cataract;[143] others at the Second Cataract.[144]
  45. ↑ Also called "Kushite Pharaohs".[146]
  46. ↑ Around 642 CE, Arab conquerors had brought Islam to Egypt, supplanting the Ancient Egyptian religion.[155]
  47. ↑ The map was engraved by Jodocus Hondius or one of his followers, and published around 1619.[158]
  48. ↑ An example of an early map that shows the Nile and its source is from the 12th century, when the Arabian geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi published a book Tabula Rogeriana which showed the Nile flowing from a large lake in Africa's interior.[162]
  49. ↑ European powers divided up Africa during a process called the Scramble for Africa, formalized in the Berlin Conference of 1885. Under that agreement, Britain received most of the Nile Basin.[167]
  50. 1 2 Egypt became nominally independent in 1922, but Britain maintained control of foreign policy and kept armed forces near the Suez Canal. Full independence was achieved in 1957 after the Suez Crisis.[176]
  51. ↑ The 1959 agreement also provided for financial compensation paid from Egypt to Sudan for the displacement of Nubians as a result of the new reservoir behind the Aswan High Dam.[179]
  52. ↑ According to Sundeep Waslekar, Nile Basin droughts in the 20th century affected around 170 million people and killed half a million people.[188] From the 70 incidents of drought which took place between 1900 and 2012, 55 incidents took place in Ethiopia, Sudan, South Sudan, Kenya and Tanzania.[188]
  53. ↑ South Sudan was not yet a country in 1999, but joined the Nile Basin Initiative in 2012.[31] Eritrea has declined to participate in the Nile Basin Initiative.[192]
  54. ↑ Kenya abụghị otu n'ime ndị mbụ bịanyere aka na ya, kama ha bịanyere aka na ya obere oge ka e mechara mepụta ya.[196]
  55. ↑ The 2015 agreement stipulated that the three countries would use the Nile's waters in a fair and appropriate manner; and they agreed on an approach to filling the reservoir and operating the dam.[202]
  56. ↑ Total generation capacity for the Nile Basin was computed by summing generation capacity values from the table titled "Major hydropower stations in the Nile Basin". Sources for capacities of individual power stations are identified in that same table.
  57. ↑ This table only includes hydropower stations with capacities over 100 MW. Smaller stations including Assiut Barrage, Jebel Aulia Dam, Naga Hammadi dam, Esna Power Plant, and Tis Abay I, II are not included. Hydropower stations outside the Nile Basin are not included, such as Ethiopia's Gilgel Gibe Dams I, II, and III.
  58. ↑ Colors in the "Landmark" column indicate the country in which the hydropower station is located.
  59. 1 2 Artwork showing an obelisk on a boat is in the Deir el-Bahari mortuary temples. The Nile River used to be much closer to the Giza Pyramid Complex than it is today, enabling boats to bring stones close to the construction site.[239]
  60. ↑ Data regarding Egyptian waterborne cargo is from 2023.[240]
  61. ↑ In 1992, Smithsonian librarian Martin R. Kalfatovic documented 1,150 books that described travels on the Nile.[244]
  62. ↑ Detail of larger artwork in the Tomb of Menna in the Theban Necropolis[252]
  63. ↑ A colossal sculpture is one twice life size or larger.[256]
  64. ↑ Quote from Antony and Cleopatra (Act 2, Scene 7). "Foison" means a rich harvest.
  65. ↑ The west side of the river is where many Egyptian funerary monuments are located, including the Giza pyramid complex, the Memphite Necropolis, and the Valley of the Kings.[270]

Ntụaka

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  1. 1 2 Senay 2014, p. 8640, Table 5.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Templeeti:Multiref
  3. 1 2 3 4 Liu 2009.
  4. ↑ Liu 2009, p. 81.
  5. ↑ Templeeti:Multiref
  6. 1 2 Size from Senay 2014, p. 8640, Table 5. Ten percent from Shahin 2002, p. 272. According to Hughes 1992, p. 97, authorities report a variety of values for the size of the Nile Basin because the flat, waterless deserts of Egypt make it difficult to establish a boundary in the northern regions.
  7. 1 2 3 Senay 2014, p. 8639, Table 4.
  8. ↑ Water Accounting in the Nile River Basin, United Nations, p. 1.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Hurst 2025.
  10. ↑ Gardiner 1964, pp. 43, 623.
  11. ↑ Allen 2000, pp. 21, 101.
  12. ↑ Allen 2000, p. 339, 470.
  13. ↑ Templeeti:Multiref
  14. 1 2 Dumont 2009, p. 6.
  15. ↑ Hamilton 2016, p. 66.
  16. ↑ Murray 1923, p. 8.
  17. ↑ Templeeti:Multiref
  18. ↑ Templeeti:Multiref
  19. ↑ Sutcliffe 2009, pp. 338, 345.
  20. 1 2 Dumont 2009, p. 4.
  21. ↑ Talling 2009, p. 390.
  22. ↑ Dumont 2009, p. 5.
  23. 1 2 Templeeti:Multiref
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  25. ↑ "Source Du Nil", Google Maps.
  26. ↑ Tvedt 2021, p. 6.
  27. ↑ Walubiri 2018.
  28. ↑ Templeeti:Multiref
  29. 1 2 Tvedt 2021, pp. 323–324.
  30. ↑ Allan 2009, p. 753.
  31. 1 2 3 Ranjan 2024, p. 18.
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  35. ↑ Tvedt 2021, p. 214.
  36. 1 2 3 4 Templeeti:Multiref
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  41. ↑ Bunbury 2023, pp. 44–45.
  42. ↑ Shahin 2002, p. 276.
  43. 1 2 El-Shabrawy 2009, p. 149.
  44. ↑ Templeeti:Multiref
  45. 1 2 Bunbury 2023, p. 45.
  46. ↑ Hamza 2009, p. 75.
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  53. 1 2 Templeeti:Multiref
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  55. ↑ "Nile Basin Dongola", Global Runoff Data Center.
  56. ↑ Templeeti:Multiref
  57. ↑ Senay 2014, p. 8639, Table 4. Based on annual discharge figures: Blue Nile 48 km3; White Nile 28 km3; Atbarah 12 km3.
  58. ↑ Sutcliffe 2009, p. 357.
  59. ↑ Sutcliffe 2009, p. 346.
  60. ↑ Templeeti:Multiref
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  63. ↑ Collins 2002, pp. 20–26.
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  69. 1 2 Sutcliffe 2009, p. 359.
  70. 1 2 Lemma 2019, p. 11.
  71. ↑ Senay 2014, p. 8631, Equation (4).
  72. 1 2 Templeeti:Multiref
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  74. ↑ Bunbury 2023, p. 70.
  75. ↑ Senay 2014, pp. 8641, 8648, Figure 7; Sections 3.5.5, 4; Tables 3,4,5 and 6.
  76. 1 2 3 Healy 2007, pp. 5–6.
  77. ↑ Templeeti:Multiref
  78. 1 2 3 Senay 2014.
  79. 1 2 Senay 2014, Tables 3,4,5 and 6; Sec 3.5.5 (Source/Sink).
  80. ↑ Senay 2014, pp. 8629–8630, Sec. 2.2.
  81. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Senay 2014, Figure 1, Table 2.
  82. ↑ Senay 2014, Figure 1, Table 2, Sec 2.2.5.
  83. 1 2 3 Sutcliffe 2009, pp. 340, 361.
  84. 1 2 Templeeti:Multiref
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  87. 1 2 3 Templeeti:Multiref
  88. 1 2 Green 2009, p. 205.
  89. 1 2 Green 2009a, p. 705.
  90. ↑ Templeeti:Multiref
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  96. ↑ Templeeti:Multiref
  97. ↑ "Nile Basin National Water Quality", Nile Basin Initiative, pp. 12–22.
  98. ↑ Templeeti:Multiref
  99. ↑ Abotalib 2023.
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  107. ↑ Beck 2018.
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  111. 1 2 Camberlin 2009, pp. 307, 327–329.
  112. ↑ Driouech 2020.
  113. ↑ Tvedt 2021, pp. 52–53. The value "one third" is from the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
  114. ↑ Abdelsalam 2018, p. 743.
  115. ↑ Templeeti:Multiref
  116. 1 2 Abdelsalam 2018, pp. 742, 768, Figures 30A, 30B, 30C, 30D.
  117. ↑ Abdelsalam 2018, p. 768.
  118. ↑ Abdelsalam 2018, p. 761.
  119. ↑ Templeeti:Multiref
  120. ↑ Abdelsalam 2018, pp. 742, 770, Figure 30B.
  121. ↑ Templeeti:Multiref
  122. ↑ Abdelsalam 2018, p. 749.
  123. ↑ Abdelsalam 2018, pp. 742, 770, Figure 30C.
  124. ↑ Abdelsalam 2018, pp. 742, 770, Figure 30D.
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  127. 1 2 Williams 2009, p. 70.
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  130. ↑ Plummer 2023.
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  139. 1 2 Templeeti:Multiref
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  142. 1 2 Templeeti:Multiref
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  144. ↑ Tvedt 2021, p. 93.
  145. ↑ Shoup 2017, Article: "Culture of the Nile".
  146. ↑ Shoup 2017, Article: "History of Egypt: Ancient".
  147. ↑ Shoup 2017, Article: "History of Sudan: Arrival of Christianity and Islam".
  148. 1 2 Shoup 2017, Article: "Ethiopia (Abyssinia)".
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  154. ↑ Bunbury 2023, p. 50.
  155. 1 2 Collins 2002, p. 21.
  156. 1 2 Bunbury 2023, pp. 50–52.
  157. ↑ Templeeti:Multiref
  158. 1 2 "Abyssinia", Library of Congress.
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  224. ↑ "Aswan Low Dam", Egypt MOEE.
  225. ↑ "Merowe Dam - Sudan", Abu Dhabi Fund for Development.
  226. ↑ "Upper Atbara Dam", OPEC Fund for International Development.
  227. ↑ "Roseires Dam", IHA.
  228. 1 2 3 Hailu 2022, Table 4.
  229. ↑ "Karuma", Uganda Radio Network.
  230. ↑ "Isimba Power Station", UEGCL.
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  252. 1 2 3 Siliotti 1997, pp. 154–155.
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Isi mmalite

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Akwụkwọ

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  • Allan, John (2009). "Nile Basin Asymmetries: A Closed Fresh Water Resource, Soil Water Potential, the Political Economy and Nile Transboundary Hydropolitics". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Springer Netherlands. pp. 749–770. ISBN 9781402097263. Retrieved 1 December 2025.
  • Tian, Tian (2025). "Pharaohs, Labourers and Wonder Builders: Illustrating Ancient Egypt with Game Mechanics in Strategy Games". In Cromwell, Jennifer (ed.). Ancient Egypt in Video Games. de Gruyter Oldenbourg. pp. 87–110. ISBN 9783111534022.

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  • Creasman, Pearce Paul; et al. (16 September 2010). "Overland Boat Transportation During the Pharaonic Period: Archaeology and Iconography". Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections. 2 (3). doi:10.2458/azu_jaei_v02i3_creasman.
  • El Mahmoudi, A.; Gabr, A. (2008). "Geophysical Surveys to Investigate the Relation Between the Quaternary Nile Channels and the Messinian Nile Canyon at East Nile Delta, Egypt". Arabian Journal of Geosciences. 2 (1). Springer Nature: 53–67. doi:10.1007/s12517-008-0018-9. ISSN 1866-7511.
  • Ranjan, Amit (2 January 2024). "Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam dispute: implications, negotiations, and mediations". Journal of Contemporary African Studies. 42 (1): 18–36. doi:10.1080/02589001.2023.2287425.
  • Senay, Gabriel B.; et al. (November 2014). "Understanding the hydrologic sources and sinks in the N ile B asin using multisource climate and remote sensing data sets". Water Resources Research. 50 (11): 8625–8650. Bibcode:2014WRR....50.8625S. doi:10.1002/2013WR015231.

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Templeeti:Subject bar

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